Philosopher Pierre. Ticket

Need some advice?

Ritual
monuments

Vertical and horizontal tombstones from the manufacturer. In stock and to order.

Ritual
Sculptures

Statues and figurines made of artificial marble for the grave. We can make to order any shape and color. Delivery and installation - Moscow / Moscow region.

Memorial
complexes

Artificial stone gravestone memorials. We can make to order any size and shape according to the client’s sketch. Delivery and installation - Moscow / Moscow region.

Ritual
flower beds

Flower beds for decorating a grave made of cast marble. We make any color and size to choose from. Delivery and installation - Moscow / Moscow region.

Ritual
vases

Cast flower vases from the manufacturer for the grave. In stock and to order. Any shape and size. Delivery and installation - Moscow / Moscow region.

WINTER SALE! MONUMENTS CHEAP! HURRY TO ORDER
Official installation in all cemeteries in Moscow and the region (Permission from State Unitary Enterprise Ritual, post. No. 323)

An epitaph is an inscription on a monument, sorrowful words about a departed person, often in poetic form. Below are several options for epitaphs and poems for engraving on a monument and tombstone.

If the client wishes, we can engrave any other inscriptions on the monument.

Epitaphs on the monument are short / dad, mom, daughter and son

Beautiful poems on the monument / mom, dad, son, daughter

If in a dream you look at old tombstones in a cemetery, this is auspicious sign, foretelling that your grief will be in vain and everything will turn out in the most prosperous way. A cracked or collapsed tombstone means the sincere love of your chosen one, but your feigned indifference can lead to the fact that close and possible happiness will melt away like smoke.

Ordering a tombstone for a relative’s grave in a dream foreshadows you honors and a prosperous life. If you order a tombstone for yourself, such a dream predicts the early loss of your husband as a result of an accident. If you find a tombstone with your name in a cemetery, this is a sign of the impending loss of a friend and a harbinger of bad news.

Dream Interpretation - Tombstone

It symbolizes some event from the past or an entire stage in your life, under which you have already drawn a line.

Making or installing a tombstone: a sign that you must say goodbye to past problems that once had serious meaning to you.

Otherwise, the memory of the past will poison your life, preventing you from achieving success.

Old or neglected monument: means old memories that still touch your heartstrings, preventing you from living a full life.

If fresh grass emerges from under an old tombstone: be prepared for the fact that some events of the past will remind you of themselves, or that a half-forgotten situation will turn into an unexpected continuation.

A dream about a kitchen stove foreshadows a quarrel that has broken out between lovers, which will only add fuel to the fire of burning feelings. A wood-burning stove portends good luck, while an extinguished stove foretells difficulties in relations with business partners.

A gas stove means harmony in relationships with loved ones and abundance in the home. A lit burner foreshadows new meetings and interesting acquaintances. Burning yourself on a stove in a dream means that the business you, roughly speaking, have gotten yourself into, disgusts you, but it’s all due to your own carelessness and excessive gullibility.

Lighting up the oven on the stove and baking something in it - you will get tired of cohabiting with a person who has become a constant object of your irritability and displeasure. A non-working stove means that you will soon receive an invitation to a big celebration with a hearty feast and many guests.

Seeing a tombstone in a dream means that you will have a misunderstanding with your friends, even to the point of mutual grievances. Reading the inscriptions on gravestones foreshadows illness in the family. If in a dream you order a slab for your grave, this portends the need to resort to hard physical labor.

Dream Interpretation - Empty Dream

A dream inspired by the situation around the sleeper. For in a draft you dream of wind or blizzard, if music was playing - then a melody, in intense heat - desert and thirst. Therefore, before interpretation, one must judge whether the dream is due to empty reasons.

Empty dreams also come from human nature, for the world stands on five components, and so does man. And those five:

1079-1142) - one of the most significant representatives of European medieval philosophy its heyday. Abelard is known in the history of philosophy not only for his views, but also for his life, which he outlined in his autobiographical work “The History of My Disasters.” From an early age, he felt a craving for knowledge, and therefore refused the inheritance in favor of his relatives. He was educated at various schools, then settled in Paris, where he was engaged in teaching and gained fame as a skilled dialectician throughout Europe. Abelard dearly loved Heloise, his talented student. Their romance led to marriage, which resulted in the birth of a son. But Heloise’s uncle intervened in their relationship, and after Abelard was abused on his uncle’s orders (he was castrated), Heloise went to a monastery. The relationship between Abelard and his wife is known from their correspondence.

Abelard’s main works: “Yes and No”, “Know Thyself”, “Dialogue between a Philosopher, a Jew and a Christian”, “Christian Theology”, etc. Abelard was a widely educated person, familiar with the works of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and others monuments of ancient culture.

The main problem in Abelard's work is the relationship between faith and reason; this problem was fundamental for all scholastic philosophy. Abelard gave preference to reason and knowledge over blind faith, so his faith must have a rational justification. Abelard is an ardent supporter and adept of scholastic logic, dialectics, which is able to expose all sorts of tricks, which is what distinguishes it from sophistry. According to Abelard, we can improve in faith only by improving our knowledge through dialectics. Abelard defined faith as a “supposition” about things that are inaccessible human feelings, as something that does not deal with natural things knowable by science.

In the work “Yes and No,” Abelard analyzes the views of the “church fathers” using excerpts from the Bible and their writings, and shows the inconsistency of the statements cited. As a result of this analysis, doubts arise in some of the dogmas of the church, Christian doctrine. On the other hand, Abelard did not doubt the basic tenets of Christianity, but only called for their meaningful assimilation. He wrote that those who do not understand Holy Scripture, is like a donkey trying to extract harmonious sounds from the lyre, without understanding anything about music.

According to Abelard, dialectics should consist of questioning the statements of authorities, the independence of philosophers, and a critical attitude towards theology.

Abelard's views were condemned by the church at the Council of Soissons (1121), according to the verdict of which he himself threw his book “Divine Unity and Trinity” into the fire. In this book, he argued that there is only one God the Father, and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit are only manifestations of his power.

In his work “Dialectics,” Abelard sets out his views on the problem of universals (general concepts). He tries to reconcile extremely realist and extremely nominalist positions. Extreme nominalism was adhered to by Abelard's teacher Roscelin, and extreme realism was also adhered to by Abelard's teacher, Guillaume of Champeaux. Roscelin believed that only individual things exist, the general does not exist at all, the general is just names. Guillaume of Champeaux, on the contrary, believed that the general exists in things as an unchanging essence, and individual things only introduce individual diversity into a single common essence.

Abelard believed that man, in the process of his sensory cognition, develops general concepts, which are expressed in words that have one meaning or another. Universals are created by man based on sensory experience by abstracting in the mind the properties of a thing that are common to many objects. As a result of this process of abstraction, universals are formed that exist only in the human mind. This position, overcoming the extremes of nominalism and realism, subsequently received the name conceptualism. Abelard opposed the scholastic speculative and idealistic speculations regarding knowledge that existed at that time.

In his work “Dialogue between a Philosopher, a Jew and a Christian,” Abelard pursues the idea of ​​religious tolerance. He proves that every religion contains a grain of truth, so Christianity cannot believe that it is the only one true religion. Only philosophy can reach truth; it is directed by natural law, free from all kinds of sacred authorities. Moral knowledge consists of following natural law. In addition to this natural law, people follow all kinds of prescriptions, but they are only unnecessary additions to the natural law that all people follow - conscience.

Abelard's ethical views are set out in two works - “Know Thyself” and “Dialogue between a Philosopher, a Jew and a Christian.” They are closely dependent on his theology. Basic principle ethical concept Abelard - an affirmation of a person’s full moral responsibility for his actions - both virtuous and sinful. This view is a continuation of Abelard’s position in the field of epistemology, emphasizing the subjective role of man in cognition. A person's activities are determined by his intentions. In itself, no action is either good or evil. It all depends on intentions. A sinful act is one that is committed in contradiction with a person’s beliefs.

Accordingly, Abelard believed that the pagans who persecuted Christ did not commit any sinful actions, since these actions were not in conflict with their beliefs. Were not sinful ancient philosophers, although not supporters of Christianity, acted in accordance with their high moral principles.

Abelard questioned the assertion of the redemptive mission of Christ, which, in his opinion, was not that he removed the sin of Adam and Eve from the human race, but that he was an example of high morality that all humanity should follow. Abelard believed that humanity inherited from Adam and Eve not the ability to sin, but only the ability to repent of it. According to Abelard, a person needs divine grace not to carry out good deeds, but as a reward for their implementation. All this contradicted the then widespread religious dogmas and was condemned by the Sansk Cathedral (1140) as heresy.

By 1119, the treatises “On the Unity and Trinity of God” (De unitate et trinitate Dei), “Introduction to Theology” (Introductio ad theologiam), and “Theology of the Supreme Good” (Theologia Summi boni) were written. In 1121 it took place local cathedral in Soissons, where Abelard was accused of violating the monastic vow, expressed in the fact that he taught classes in a secular school and taught theology without a church license. However, in fact, the subject of the proceedings was the treatise “On the Unity and Trinity of God,” directed against the nominalism of Roscelin and the realism of Guillaume of Champeaux. Ironically, Abelard was accused precisely of nominalism: the treatise allegedly defended the idea of ​​tritheism, for which Abelard accused Roscelin; the treatise was burned by Abelard himself. After condemnation by the Soissons Cathedral, he was forced to change monasteries several times, and in 1136 he reopened the school on the hill of St. Genevieve. During this time he wrote several versions of " Christian theology"(Theologia Christiana), "Yes and No" (Sic et non), "Dialectica", commentary on the "Epistle to the Romans", "Ethics, or Know Thyself" (Ethica, seu Scito te ipsum), etc. Convened by Bernard of Clairvaux in 1141, the Council of Sens accused Abelard of Arian, Pelagian and Nestorian heresies. He went to Rome with an appeal, fell ill on the way and spent his last months in the monastery of Cluny, where he wrote “Dialogue between Philosopher, Jew and Christian” (Dialogus inter Philosophum, ludaeum et Christianum), which remained unfinished. Pope Innocent III confirmed the verdict of the council, dooming Abelard to eternal silence; his treatises were burned in the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. The Abbot of Cluny, Peter the Venerable, interceded for Abelard. Abelard died in the monastery of St. Marcellus near Chalons.

The name of Abelard is associated with the design of the scholastic antithetical method, based on the idea of ​​equivocation (the term was introduced by Boethius), or ambiguity. The idea of ​​equivocation, clearly presented in “Yes and No,” where, through the method of quotation comparison, contradictory statements of the Church Fathers about the same problem were collected, it is expressed in three aspects: 1) the same term, located on different sides of the contradiction, conveys different meanings; 2) different meanings of the same term are a consequence of the figurative nature of the language and 3) a consequence of the transfer (translation) of a term from one type of knowledge to another (the expression “man is”, fair for natural knowledge, is unfair for theological knowledge, where the verb “is” can only be applied to God as the fullness of being). Affirmation and negation turn out to be contradictions in one case (in theology), in another (in natural science) they form different shapes connections between words and things. The same word can express not only different things that have different definitions, as was the case with Aristotle, but different definitions can be assumed in the same thing due to its simultaneous sacred-profane existence. In “The Theology of the Highest Good”, based on the idea of ​​equivocation, Abelard identifies 4 meanings of the term “person”: theological (the existence of God in three Persons), rhetorical (legal person), poetic (a dramatic character “transmitting events and speeches to us”) and grammatical ( three faces of speech).

Abelard laid the foundation for the disciplinarity of knowledge, designating for each discipline different ways verification and establishing the basic criteria for what from now on, instead of ars-art, begins to be called scientia and in the future will develop into the concept of science. The main principles of Theology as a discipline (in this capacity, this term begins to come into use precisely with Abelard, replacing the term “sacred doctrine”) is, first of all, intransigence to contradictions and faith in the solvability of the problem (associated, for example, with unclear places of dogma) with using term transfer. Ethics is presented by Abelard as a discipline, the subject of which involves assessing the activities of both humanity as a whole and a specific generation of people. With its emergence in the 11th century. secular intellectual inquiry about moral orientation in the world, one of the central points of Abelard’s moral philosophy was the definition of ethical concepts (primarily the concept of sin) in their relation to law. This gave rise to the problem of the relationship between two forms of law: natural and positive. Natural law defined the concepts of sin and virtue in relation to the Highest Good (God), the positive - to general, human law, the principles of which were developed back in ancient philosophy; problem

Moreover, how it is possible to achieve good through one’s own effort or the plans of the law, forced one to turn to the Jewish religion.

In the treatise “Ethics, or Know Thyself,” Abelard introduces the concept of intention—the conscious intent of an action; not considering the will to be the initiator of the action (the will, curbed by the virtue of abstinence, ceases to be the basis for sin), he shifts attention from the action to an assessment of the state of the soul, which makes it possible to identify different intentions for outwardly identical actions (“two are hanging a certain criminal. One is driven by zeal for justice , and the other by inveterate enemy hatred, and although they commit the same act... due to the difference in intention, the same thing is done differently: by one with evil, by another with good” (“Theological Treatises.” M ., 1995, p. 261). Due to the fact that sin, determined through intention, is expiated through conscious repentance, which presupposes internal questioning of the soul, it turns out that 1) the sinner does not need an intermediary (priest) in communication with God; 2) sinners are not people who committed a sin out of ignorance or due to rejection of the gospel preaching (for example, the executioners of Christ); 3) a person does not inherit original sin, and the punishment for this sin. If ethics, according to Abelard, is the way to comprehend God, then logic is a rational way of contemplating God. Ethics and logic appear as aspects of a single theological system. Due to the combination in one concept of two differently directed meanings (secular and sacred), such philosophizing can be called meditative dialectics. Since universally necessary knowledge belongs only to God, then before His Face any definition acquires a modal character. An attempt to define a thing with the help of many species-forming characteristics reveals its indefinability. The definition is replaced by a description, which is an allegory of a thing (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, etc.), i.e., a trope. The trope turns out to be a matrix of thinking.

Paths, concept, transfer (translation), intention, subject-substance are the basic concepts of Abelard’s philosophy, which determined his approach to the problem of universals. His logic is a theory of speech, since it is based on the idea of ​​a statement, conceptualized as a concept. The concept connection between a thing and speech about a thing is, according to Abelard, a universal, since it is speech that “grabs” (conceptualizes) all possible meanings, selecting what is necessary for a specific representation of a thing. Unlike a concept, a concept is inextricably linked with communication. It is 1) formed by speech, 2) sanctified, according to medieval ideas, by the Holy Spirit and 3) therefore taking place “beyond grammar or language” - in the space of the soul with its rhythms, energy, intonation; 4) it expresses the subject to the utmost. 5) Changing the soul of a reflective individual, when forming a statement, he assumes another subject, listener or reader and 6) in answers to their questions, he actualizes certain meanings; 7) memory and imagination are integral properties of the concept, 8) aimed at understanding here and now, but at the same time 9) it synthesizes three abilities of the soul and, as an act of memory, is oriented to the past, as an act of imagination - to the future, and as an act judgments - to the present. The concept of a concept is associated with the features of Abelard’s logic; 1) purification of the intellect from grammatical structures; 2) inclusion in the intellect of the act of conceiving, connecting it with various abilities of the soul; 3) this made it possible to introduce temporary structures into the logic. Conceptual vision is a special kind of “grasping” of the universal: a universal is not a person, not an animal, and not the name “man” or “animal,” but the universal connection of a thing and a name, expressed by sound.

Works: MPL., t. 178; Philosophische Schriften, hisg. von B. Geyer. Munster, 1919; Theologia "Summi boni", ed. H. Ostlender. Munster, 1939; Oeuvres choisies dAbelard, ed. V. Gandillac. P., 1945; Dialectica, ed. L. M. de Rijk. Assen, 1956; Opera theologica, l. Corpus Christianorom. Continuatio medievalis, XI, ed. E. M. Buyiaert. Tumhout, 1969; Dialogus inter Philosophum, ludaeum et Christianum, ed. R. Thomas. Stuttg.-Bad Cannstatt,. 1970; Du bien supreme, ed. J.Jolivet. Montreal., 1978; Peter Abaelards Ethica, ed. D. E. Luscombe. Oxf., 1971; Ethical Writing, transi. H. V. Srade. Indianopolis-Cambr., 1995; in Russian Transl.: The story of my disasters. M., 1959; 1992 (in the book: Aurelius Augustine, Confession. Peter Abelard, The History of My Disasters); 1994 (translated from Latin by V. A. Sokolov); Theological treatises, trans. from lat. S. S. Neretina. M., 1995; Lit.: Fedotov G. P. Abelar. Pg., 1924 (republished: Fedotov G. II. Collected works in 12 volumes, vol. l. M., 1996); Rabinovich V., Confession of a bookworm who taught the letter and strengthened the spirit. M., 1991; Neretina S.S., Word and text in medieval culture. Conceptualism of Peter Abelard. M., 1994 (in the “Pyramid” series. M., 1996); Neretina S.S. Believing mind: on the history of medieval philosophy. Arkhangelsk, 1995; Remusat Ch. de. Abelard, sa vie, sa philosophie et sa theologie. P., 1855; Sikes 1. Abailard. Cambr., 1932; CottieuxJ. La conception de la theologie chez Abailard.-“Revue dhistoire ecclesiastique”, t. 28, N 2. Louvain, 1932; Gilson E. Heloise et Abailard. P., 1963; /olivet J. Art du langage et theologie chez Abelard. Vrain, 1969; Compeyre G. Abelard and the origin and early history of University. N.Y., 1969; Fumagalli Seonio-Brocchieri M. T. La logica di Abelardo. Mil., 1969; Eadem. Abelardo. Roma-Ban, 1974; Peter Abelard. Proceedings of the International Conference. Louvain. May 10-12. 1971 (ed. E. Buytaert), Leuven-The Hague, 1974; Eveedale M. M. Abailard on Universals. Amst.-N.Y.-Oxf., 1976; Abelard. Le Dialogue. La philosophie de la logique. Gen.-Losanne-Neue hatel. 1981.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓