Philosophy of will by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. A

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- one of the best examples of photographic equipment that came to our laboratory. Undoubtedly main feature is a surprisingly large electronic viewfinder with very high sharpness, which is “hidden” in the camera body and is pulled out using a special button.

You can also use the sharp 3-inch rotating screen to compose your story. But, it should be noted, the display is not touch-sensitive. Sony developers also abandoned the hot shoe that the predecessor RX100 II had. In its place is a pop-up flash with a range of 6.5 meters.

Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100 III: Test Results

Important features include zoom with five-axis image stabilization. Compared to previous models, manufacturers slightly reduced the camera zoom from 3.6 to 2.9, but the camera became significantly faster.

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Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100 III: image quality

The loss of sharpness is usually small: a huge 1-inch matrix with a resolution of 20 megapixels for a compact camera guarantees 1600 pairs of lines per frame height and at the same time very high sharpness. This indicator does not change up to ISO 3200. It is only from this ISO level that noise becomes noticeable during full-screen viewing.

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Characteristics and test results of Sony Cyber-shot DSC-RX100 III

One of the earliest irrationalist philosophers is German philosopher A. Schopenhauer (1788-1860). His major work, The World as Will and Representation, was published as early as 1819, but did not gain recognition until late in his life. Schopenhauer relies on the philosophy of Kant, but noticeably irrationalizes his doctrine of the “thing in itself” and absolutizes the irrational nature of the productive power of imagination. He is also influenced by Indian philosophy.

Schopenhauer views the world in two aspects: as representation and as will. The entire “existing for knowledge” world is an object in relation to the subject, my idea, which does not exist without the subject (“There is no object without the subject”). Considering representation as the unity of subject and object, Schopenhauer anticipates an idea common in The latest philosophy. The world is represented in the forms of space and time, causality, and multiplicity. The world as a representation is the world of phenomena, the world of science. Scientific knowledge explores the relationships between things, but the essence of things, the reality, is hidden. The world of phenomena is an illusion, a veil of Maya. Already the human body shows the lack of understanding of man only in the aspect of the world as a representation. The body is not just a body among other objects, but also a manifestation of the will. (“An act of will and bodily movements are one and the same”). The body is the visible will, the essence of practical actions is in the will. Schopenhauer concludes that will is the essence not only of an individual person, but of the world as a whole. Will is free and irrational, it is outside of time, space of multiplicity - a thing-in-itself. The will is one, but it is possible to distinguish “stages of objectification” of the will – the ideas of Plato. Will manifests itself in different ways - from the unconscious stages of objectification to the formation of an idea of ​​the world. Cognition and reason are secondary, derivative in relation to the will.

Will as the will to live is the basis of suffering, it is continuous tension. A person's life passes between suffering from unsatisfied needs and boredom. The world is a place of suffering, optimism is shameless. Schopenhauer's ethics - ethics pessimism. This is a new phenomenon in Western European philosophy. Suffering can be reduced through art, by contemplating unchanging ideas. But suffering can be completely eliminated only through asceticism, taming the will. Along with the extinction of the will to live, the world of appearance is also abolished, dissolution into nothingness and tranquility of the spirit occurs.

Philosophical teaching F. Nietzsche (1844-1900) inconsistent and contradictory, but it is united in spirit, tendency and purpose. It is not limited to the philosophy of life. His main works: “Thus Spake Zarathustra” (1885), “Beyond Good and Evil” (1886) and others. The early Nietzsche was influenced by Schopenhauer, but unlike the latter, he paid much less attention to issues of being and knowledge. His work is mainly devoted to criticism of European culture and moral problems. Irrational will, “life” in its opposition to scientific reason, forms the original reality. The world is the world of our life. There is no world independent of us. The world is considered in a process of continuous formation, it is a world of constant struggle for existence, a clash of wills. Nietzsche, like other contemporary philosophers, biologizes the world, which for him is basically the “organic world.” Its formation is a manifestation of the will to power, which gives rise to a relatively stable order of reality, since the greater will defeats the lesser. Unlike Schopenhauer, Nietzsche proceeds from a pluralism of wills, their struggle shapes reality. “Will” is understood more specifically – as the will to power. Finally, he defends the need to strengthen the will, criticizing Schopenhauer for his desire to calm the will. It is necessary to strive not for non-existence, but for the fullness of life - this is the principle of the philosophy of F. Nietzsche. He is critical of the idea of ​​development: there is only formation and "eternal return" Periodically, an era comes nihilism, chaos reigns, there is no meaning. The need for will arises, reconciliation with oneself appears, and the world repeats itself again. Eternal return is the fate of the world, and on its basis “love of fate” is formed. Knowledge of the world is inaccessible to logic, generalizing science; knowledge is a means of mastering the world, and not obtaining knowledge about the world. Truth is only a “useful delusion.” In the process of cognition, we do not penetrate into the essence of the world, but only give an interpretation of the world; the will to power is manifested in the creation of its own “world” by the human subject.

Criticizing his contemporary culture, Nietzsche notes the special historical place of his era. This is the era when "God is dead" and Nietzsche proclaims new era arrival superman. His Zarathustra is the prophet of this idea. Modern man weak, he is “something that needs to be overcome.” Christian religion as the religion of compassion is the religion of the weak, it weakens the will to power. Hence Nietzsche’s anti-Christianity (with a high assessment of the personality of Jesus). Christian Church, he believes, turned everything upside down (“turned any truth into a lie”). Required "revaluation of values." Traditional morality is also subject to reassessment. Modern morality– this morality of the weak, “slaves”, is a weapon of their domination over the strong. One of the culprits of the moral revolution is Socrates, and therefore Nietzsche idealizes the Pre-Socratics, whose morality had not yet been perverted. Nietzsche extols aristocratic morality, which is characterized by courage, generosity, and individualism. It is based on the connection between man and the earth, the joy of love, and common sense. This is the morality of the superman, the strong, free man, who frees himself from illusions and realizes a high level of “will to power,” returning “to the innocent conscience of the predatory beast.” The “immoralism” declared by Nietzsche is associated with the replacement of “slave morality” with “master morality.” The new morality, in essence, is new interpretation peace. Nietzsche's philosophy often received ambiguous assessments: ideologists of fascism tried to use it, and they saw it as the ideology of the imperialist bourgeoisie. At the same time, she influenced a number of trends in modern philosophy and culture

A prominent representative of irrationalism was Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 - 1860). In his work, he opposed the dialectics and historicism of Hegel, called for a return to Kantianism and Platonism, and proclaimed voluntarism as the universal principle of his philosophy, according to which the main driving force that determines everything in the world around us is will.

In his book “The World as Will and Representation,” the philosopher concludes logical law sufficient reason. According to this law, true philosophy must proceed not from the object (like materialists), but also not from the subject (like subjective idealists), but only from representation, which is a fact of consciousness.

In turn, representations (and not objective reality and not the cognizing subject) are divided into object and subject. It is precisely at the basis of the object of representation that lies the law of sufficient reason, which is divided into four independent laws:

law of existence - for space and time; law of causality - for the material world; law of logical reason - for knowledge; the law of motivation for human actions.

Thus, the world around us(representation of an object) is reduced to being, causality, logical basis and motivation.

The subject's representation does not have such a complex structure. Human consciousness carries out the cognitive process through the representation of the subject by:

Direct knowledge; abstract (reflective) cognition; intuition.

The central concept of Schopenhauer's philosophy is will. Will, according to Schopenhauer, is the absolute beginning, the root of all things, an ideal force capable of determining and influencing all things. Will is also the highest cosmic principle that underlies the universe.

Will:

Underlies consciousness; is the universal essence of things.

When explaining will as the universal essence of things, Schopenhauer relies on Kantianism, namely on Kant’s theory, according to which only images of things in the surrounding world are reflected in consciousness, and their inner essence is an unresolved riddle (“a thing in itself”).

Schopenhauer uses this theory from the standpoint of voluntarism:

The surrounding world is only a world of ideas in the human mind; the essence of the world, its things, phenomena is not a “thing in itself”, but will; the world of phenomena and the world of essence are, respectively, the world of ideas and the world of will; just as a person’s will determines his actions, so the general will operating throughout the world, the will of objects and phenomena, causes external events in the world, the movement of objects, the emergence of phenomena; will is inherent not only in living organisms, but also in inanimate nature in the form of “unconscious”, “dormant” will; the world around us, in its essence, is the realization of will.. In addition to the problem of will, Schopenhauer also considers other “urgent” philosophical problems - human destiny, freedom, necessity, human capabilities, happiness. In general, the philosopher’s view of these problems is pessimistic character. Despite the fact that Schopenhauer laid the will at the basis of man and his consciousness, he does not believe in man’s ability to dominate not only nature, but also his own destiny.

The fate of man is in the general world chaos of things and phenomena and is subject to universal necessity. The will of an individual person is weaker than the collective will of the surrounding world and is suppressed by it. Schopenhauer does not believe in human happiness.

Schopenhauer's philosophy (his doctrine of the fourfold law of sufficient reason, voluntarism, pessimism, etc.) was not understood and accepted by many of his contemporaries and did not have much popularity, but it played a big role in the development of non-classical idealistic philosophy (irrationalism, symbolism, " philosophy of life") and positivism.

The successor of Schopenhauer's philosophical traditions was Friedrich Nietzsche(1844 - 1900). Nietzsche is considered the founder of a “philosophy of life” related to irrationalism.

Main works: “Beyond Good and Evil”, “Antichristian”. Nietzsche's works are contradictory because it is very difficult to find a definite thought.

The core concept of this philosophy is the concept of life, which is understood as the world in the aspect of its givenness to the cognizing subject, the only reality that exists for a specific person.

The purpose of philosophy, according to Nietzsche, is to help a person realize himself as much as possible in life, to adapt to the world around him.

The basis of both life and the world around us is will. Nietzsche highlights several types of human will:

"will to live"; the will within the person himself (“inner core”); uncontrollable, unconscious will - passions, drives, affects; "will to power".

The philosopher pays special attention to the last type of will - the “will to power”. According to Nietzsche, the “will to power” is inherent to a greater or lesser extent in every person. “The will to power” lies at the heart of Nietzsche’s being. By its nature, the “will to power” is close to the instinct of self-preservation; it is an external expression of the desire for security hidden within a person and the driving force behind many human actions. Also, according to Nietzsche, every person (like the state) consciously or unconsciously strives to expand his “I” in outside world, expansion of "I".

Nietzsche's philosophy is associated with the concept of "superman". "Superman" is a being who denies the average person. "Superman" is a special aristocrat who denies Christian morality; the origin of such a person is malice. The philosophy of such a weak person is to destroy, and the falling one to the ceiling.

1st class - Eagles who subjugate everyone.

Grade 2 – Lambs that obey.

The prophet and seer Zarathustra (Persian prince) expounds, in a certain sense, a new religion. The ultimate goal of human aspiration is life. Life is cosmic and biological: it is the will to power as the principle of world existence and “eternal rebirth.”

Philosophy of life is a popular movement that emerged at the end of the 19th century. What are its main characteristics? Life, according to this philosophical school, is a combination of a number of aspects. Thinkers paid attention to the psychological, biological, social, and cultural sides of existence.

One of the most important features of the works of representatives of such a direction as the philosophy of life is an attempt to consider the existence of the individual in its integrity and the totality of all details. Thinkers tried to embrace the entire existence of man, to decipher its meaning. The most active in this direction are Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Let's try to formulate the main provisions of their works.

One might say that philosophy Schopenhauer's life but rather pessimistic. The great thinker believed that the existence of humanity and reason are incompatible concepts. The philosopher did not believe in progress. He wrote that a person’s entire life is subordinated not to rational motives, but to the so-called will. according to Schopenhauer? To explain briefly, this is the basic instinct that prompts a person to preserve life at any cost. The will is expressed in certain affects. Basically this is the need for power, love, and so on. It should also be noted that the will is absolutely blind. She is not submissive

Schopenhauer believed that as long as there is this will to live, which pushes a person to aimless and unconstructive actions, all existence is actually meaningless and chaotic. What solution does the famous thinker offer? Schopenhauer's philosophy of life is that a person must understand the need to renounce his will. Only in this case will his life not be subordinated to instinct, and the individual will gain true freedom. Here we can draw an analogy with the ancients mystical teachings, where it was indicated what it means to achieve nirvana. AND great philosopher, and the sages call for the abandonment of the illusory world, which is subordinate to instincts.

Schopenhauer's irrationalism shared famous life sings his praises strong man who could do it himself. Nietzsche despised the common people, their petty concerns and standard thinking. He sang a hymn to the superman, who is far from conventions, authorities, public opinion. It is worth noting that Nietzsche also mentioned in his writings the will as the core of human life. However, it is worth making some minor additions here. By will, the philosopher meant the desire to rule. In a sense, this is the reason that Nietzsche was an opponent of Christian morality. The philosopher believed that religion makes slaves out of people. Consider his statement that only when God dies will man be finally freed. Nietzsche praised the ruler, the ruler of life, who does not obey anyone or anything. At the same time, one should not think that the philosopher was prone to nihilism. Nietzsche noted in his writings the importance of independent rational thinking, individual knowledge of life. The thinker believed that each person is able to develop his own principles of existence, and not accept the knowledge and laws that are imposed from the outside. Nietzsche wrote that the superman is the peak to which every reasonable person must strive

If you are interested in such a field as the philosophy of life, for a better and complete understanding of it, you need to read the works of many authors. It is worth noting that the main positions of thinkers can differ significantly from each other. Despite the fact that philosophers worked in the same direction, each of them has their own view of the world and man’s place in it.

From the middle of the 18th century. In European philosophy, the rationalist direction occupies a dominant position. The rationalistic understanding of problems persists into the 20th century. An example of such influence is the various schools of "philosophy of science".

In the middle of the 19th century. In Western European philosophy, irrationalistic concepts appear and come to the fore.

The first irrationalistic ideas appeared in Antiquity (the teachings of Orphico-Pythagoras, Platonism and Neoplatonism, late stoicism etc.). Later, the French skepticism of M. Montaigne, the religious and philosophical quests of B. Pascal, S. Kierkegaard and others appeared.

Irrationalism received its most complete and comprehensive development in secular Western European philosophy from the second half of the 19th century. His influence on the development of philosophy was felt throughout the 20th century.

Irrationalism, like philosophical direction is not associated with any specific historical processes - its concepts, schools and movements reflect such aspects of human existence and worldview that are not expressed within the framework of rationalism.

The spread of irrationalistic ideas occurs due to disappointment in the ideals that rationalism proclaimed.

In the middle of the 19th century. people have become convinced that the progress of science and technology in itself does not lead to the realization of the age-old ideas of mankind. People have ceased to see in the world historical process the manifestation and implementation of a higher mind. In philosophy, literature, and art, the idea is affirmed that the hopes that the objective movement of the world process guarantees the implementation of strictly human goals are groundless.

Disbelief in the constructive and creative powers of man, historical and social pessimism, and skepticism are the main features of the mentality of the second half of the 19th century. - early 20th century

In irrationalism, the spiritual is identified with spontaneous, unconscious impulses, emotional-volitional and moral-practical structures of the subject.

All forms of a rational, expedient attitude towards the world are declared in irrationalism to be derived from an original, pre-conscious basis.

Depending on what specific beginning is declared to be the essential characteristic of the subject, and what interpretation is given to this beginning, there are philosophical schools: “philosophy of will” by A. Schopenhauer and others; “philosophy of life” by F. Nietzsche, V. Dilthey, A. Bergson and others; existentialism of M. Heidegger, J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus and others.

Irrationalism and “philosophy of life” are areas of non-classical German philosophy.

Representatives of non-classical idealist philosophy aimed to criticize German classical philosophy, especially Hegel, using old approaches. They explained the world from the standpoint of idealism, but the idealism of Plato, Aristotle and other representatives before classical philosophy.

At the end of the 19th century. A cultural and historical situation arose in which science was intensively developing, nature was being conquered, and the remnants of feudal social relations were destroyed. The ideas of rationalism and faith in the rationality of the world were increasingly established in public consciousness. It was believed that the principles of reason could form the basis of morality, politics, freedom, and on the basis of these principles a perfect state should be built (philosophical rationalism from F. Bacon to Hegel).

History has shown that everything has reverse side; blind instinct, the will to live and the will to power often outweigh the arguments of reason. An example is the French Revolution of 1789-1793, which was prepared on the ideas of the Enlightenment, but gave rise to terror unleashed by those who undertook to rebuild life on the “principles of reason.” In this regard, a question arose in philosophy: maybe the masses live in myths and illusions and do not need the truth? In addition, the development of science and technology has shown not only their positive, but also negative aspects. They not only made people's lives easier, but also brought destruction. Therefore, the principles of rationalism are beginning to be actively revised and a new philosophical direction is being formed - irrationalism, which rejects logical connections In nature, the surrounding world is perceived as an integral and natural system, and the very idea of ​​development is criticized.

Main idea irrationalism is that the world around us is a disjointed chaos that has no integrity, internal patterns, laws of development, is not controlled by reason and is subject to other driving forces, for example, affects and will.

In the teachings of F. Nietzsche and A. Schopenhauer, will is understood as a self-positing force that determines the entire life process of a person.

Arthur Schopenhauer(1788 – 1860) is the founder of irrationalist philosophy of the 19th century.

On philosophical views Schopenhauer was influenced by the ideas of Plato and Kant, but in to a greater extent- philosophy and religion of Ancient India. Schopenhauer refers to the Vedas, Upanishads, Buddhism, uses the terms "maya" (appearance, illusion), "nirvana" (cooling, extinction), etc. He rethinks Kant's "thing in itself", presenting it as the "will to live" - ​​a certain the inaccessible essence of the world.

In his work, he opposed the dialectics and historicism of Hegel, called for a return to Kantianism and Platonism, and proclaimed voluntarism as the universal principle of his philosophy, according to which the main driving force that determines everything in the world around us is will.

The central concept of Schopenhauer's philosophy is will. Spontaneous, not limited by anything, not predetermined by anything World Role is, according to Schopenhauer, the fundamental beginning of the universe. Will is understood as an endless desire. “It is groundless,” “beyond causality, time and space.” "Will is the inner essence of the world." The will is primary, it is not justified by anything, has neither reason nor purpose.

Schopenhauer endows the Will with universal cosmic functions. Will is a universal cosmic phenomenon, and every force in nature is like will. Will, according to Schopenhauer, is the absolute beginning, the basis of all things, an ideal force capable of determining and influencing all things. Will is also the highest cosmic principle that underlies the universe. Manifesting in living and inanimate nature, the will does not “split” into many wills, but represents a single world will. All that exists - nature, man, social institutions and objective forms of culture represent only stages of objectification of the Will.

When explaining will as the universal essence of things, Schopenhauer relies on Kant’s theory (the idea of ​​the “Thing in itself”).

Will underlies consciousness and is the universal essence of things.

All corporeality is “objectivity of the will,” the instincts and impulses of animals are also an action of the will, and finally, man is a manifestation of the will, his nature is therefore irrational and not rational.

Manifesting in a person, the will subjugates him to itself, all his actions depend on it. The world exists in the consciousness of the subject as a representation; it is conditioned by the subject and is unthinkable without the subject. To a person who knows the truth, “it will become clear and certain that he knows no sun, no earth, but only the eye that sees the sun, the hand that touches the earth. Schopenhauer says that the world exists only as an idea.

Reason is secondary in relation to will, it is baseless, the sources of everything else are found in it.

The world is will and its manifestation.

Schopenhauer refers to the sages of India, to their teaching about the veil of deception - Maya, covering the eyes of mortals and forcing them to see a world about which it can neither be said that it exists nor that it does not exist. The world is like a dream, a reflection of sand that a traveler mistakes for water, or a thrown rope that seems to him like a snake.

According to Schopenhauer, the Will also subordinates the intellect. Human intelligence, generated by the will to live, is limited by the goals of self-preservation, the struggle for existence, and satisfaction of needs.

The world generated by will is inaccessible to intellectual knowledge. It can only be comprehended by inner experience, by super-rational intuition based on will. In this opposition of mystical intuition to the sensual and rational knowledge The anti-intellectualism and irrationalism of Schopenhauer's philosophy, characteristic of all areas of the philosophy of life, appeared.

The will reveals itself at various stages of objectification - from the elementary forces of attraction and repulsion to the highest forms of organic life represented by man. At a certain stage of development, cognition arises as an auxiliary instrument of action, and with it the world as a representation in its inherent forms - correlative subject and object, space, time, multiplicity and causality. The world, which until now was only will, becomes an object for the knowing subject.

Will, as a thing in itself and the basis of every phenomenon, is free. Everything that relates to a phenomenon is, on the one hand, a cause, and on the other, an effect. Consequently, the entire totality of natural phenomena is subject to necessity. A choice of decisions is possible for a person, and this possibility makes a person an arena for the struggle of motives.

In his main book, “The World as Will and Representation,” the philosopher deduces the logical law of sufficient reason. According to this law, true philosophy must proceed neither from the object (materialism) nor from the subject ( subjective idealism), but only from representation, which is a fact of consciousness.

In turn, representations are divided into object and subject.

It is at the basis of the object of representation that the law of sufficient reason lies, which breaks down into 4 basic laws:

The law of existence is for space and time,

The law of causality is for the material world,

The law of logical reason - for knowledge,

The law of motivation for human actions.

Human consciousness carries out the cognitive process through the representation of the subject through: direct cognition, abstract (reflective) cognition and intuition.

The main theme of Schopenhauer's thoughts is the theme of suffering, blind fate, death. Philosophizing is generated by human suffering that arises during various collisions with the world. Philosophizing requires courage, because... a person needs to admit the truth: life is tinsel, “mold” on our planet, which inevitably dies. The world is unreasonable and meaningless, life can bring nothing but suffering.

Schopenhauer considers sexual love (procreation) to be the strongest instinct of life, which in reality turns into the reproduction of new generations for torment, suffering and inevitable death.

Schopenhauer denied the immortality of the soul, like other dogmas of Christianity. He believed that the dominance of world Evil is incompatible with faith in God. The only worthy way out for a person is to extinguish the “will to live.” Schopenhauer's ideal is nirvana, rejection of the world.

Basic principles of Schopenhauer's theory:

The world around us there is only a world of ideas in the human mind. The essence of the world, its things, phenomena is not a “thing in itself”, but will. The world of phenomena and the world of essence are, respectively, the world of ideas and the world of will.

Just as a person’s will determines his actions, so the general will operating throughout the world, the will of objects and phenomena, causes external events in the world, the movement of objects, the emergence of phenomena.

Will is inherent not only in living organisms, but also in inanimate nature, in the form of “unconscious”, “dormant” will.

The surrounding world in its essence is the realization of will.

Schopenhauer also pays attention to the problem of human destiny, freedom, necessity, human capabilities, and happiness. In general, the philosopher’s view of these problems is pessimistic. Despite the fact that the basis of man and his consciousness, according to Schopenhauer, is will, he does not believe in the ability of man to dominate not only nature, but also his own destiny. The will to live in Schopenhauer's theory is an evil, satanic force, a source of suffering.

The world ruled by Will is subject to chance; it has no meaning, no values, no purpose. A person cannot change anything about him. But, if the cause of suffering is tension of the will, it means that an end to suffering is possible, and life takes on meaning if the mind refuses to serve the will and sets as its goal the suppression of its individual will, an escape from it into an ascetic lifestyle, into nirvana. This is the only way to escape from sorrow and torment and thereby reduce world evil.

The fate of man, according to his ideas, is located in the general world chaos of things and phenomena and is subject to universal necessity. The will of an individual person is weaker than the collective will of the surrounding world and is suppressed by it. Schopenhauer does not believe in human happiness.

Life as a manifestation of will is one of the theories of the philosophy of life.

Schopenhauer's cosmic pessimism does not detract from his contribution to philosophical knowledge. Schopenhauer discovered a new layer of reality for science - the world of the unconscious. He became the forerunner of discoveries in the field of sciences studying the unconscious - psychiatry, psychology, philosophy, cultural studies of the 20th century.

Schopenhauer's philosophy was not widespread among his contemporaries, but played a large role in the development of non-classical idealistic philosophy (irrationalism, symbolism, “philosophy of life”) and positivism. Schopenhauer's ideas had a significant influence on the development of such later movements as existentialism and "philosophy of life."

Friedrich Nietzsche(1844 – 1900) - a successor to the traditions of Schopenhauer, considered the founder of a “philosophy of life” related to irrationalism.

The central concept of this philosophy is the concept of life, which is understood as the world in the aspect of its givenness to the cognizing subject, the only reality that exists for a specific person.

The purpose of philosophy, according to Nietzsche, is to help a person realize himself as much as possible in life, to adapt to the world around him.

The basis of both life and the world around us is will.

Nietzsche identifies several types of human will: “the will to live”, the will within the person himself (“inner core”); uncontrollable, unconscious will - passions, drives, affects; "will to power".

Nietzsche pays special attention to the will to power. He believes that the “will to power” is inherent to a greater or lesser extent in every person. By its nature, the “will to power” is close to the instinct of self-preservation; it is an external expression of a person’s internal desire for security and the driving force behind many human actions.

Also, according to Nietzsche, every person (like the state) consciously or unconsciously strives to expand his “I” in the outside world, the expansion of the “I”.

Nietzsche's philosophy (especially its main ideas - “the will to live”, “the will to power”) was the predecessor of a number of modern Western philosophical concepts, which are based on the problems of man and his life - pragmatism, phenomenology, existentialism, etc.

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