Fundamental characteristics of Christianity. World religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), their brief description

And also their classifications. In religious studies, the following types are distinguished: tribal, national and world religions.

Buddhism

- the most ancient world religion. It arose in the 6th century. BC NS. in India, and is currently distributed in the countries of South, Southeast, Central Asia and the Far East and has about 800 million followers. Tradition links the emergence of Buddhism with the name of Prince Siddhartha Gautama. The father hid bad things from Gautama, he lived in luxury, married his beloved girl, who bore him a son. The impetus for a spiritual upheaval for the prince, as the legend says, was four meetings. First he saw a decrepit old man, then suffering from leprosy and a funeral procession. So Gautama learned old age, sickness and death - the lot of all people... Then he saw a pacified beggar wanderer who needed nothing from life. All this shocked the prince, made him think about the fate of people. He secretly left the palace and family, at the age of 29 he became a hermit and tried to find. As a result of deep reflections at the age of 35, he became a Buddha - enlightened, awakened. For 45 years, the Buddha preached his teachings, which can be summarized in the following main ideas.

Life is suffering, which is caused by the desires and passions of people. To get rid of suffering, it is necessary to renounce earthly passions and desires. This can be achieved by following the path of salvation indicated by the Buddha.

After death, any living creature, including humans, is reborn again., but already in the form of a new living being, whose life is determined not only by his own behavior, but also by the behavior of his “predecessors”.

We must strive for nirvana, that is, dispassion and peace, which are achieved by abandoning earthly attachments.

Unlike Christianity and Islam Buddhism lacks the idea of ​​God as the creator of the world and its ruler. The essence of Buddhist doctrine boils down to an appeal to each person to embark on the path of seeking inner freedom, complete liberation from all the shackles that life carries.

Christianity

It arose in the 1st century. n. NS. in the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Palestine - as addressed to all the humiliated, thirsty for justice. It is based on the idea of ​​messianism - the hope for the Divine deliverer of the world from all the bad things that exist on Earth. Jesus Christ suffered for the sins of people, whose name translated from Greek means "Messiah", "Savior". By this name, Jesus is associated with the Old Testament legends about the coming to Israel of the prophet, the Messiah, who will free the people from suffering and establish a righteous life - God's kingdom. Christians believe that the coming of God to Earth will be accompanied by the Last Judgment, when He will judge the living and the dead, direct them to heaven or hell.

Basic Christian ideas:

• The belief that God is one, but He is a Trinity, that is, God has three "persons": Father, Son and Holy Spirit, which form one God who created the Universe.
• Belief in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ is the second person of the Trinity, God the Son is Jesus Christ. He has two natures at the same time: divine and human.
• Faith in Divine grace is a mysterious power sent by God to free a person from sin.
• Belief in posthumous retribution and afterlife.
• Belief in the existence of good spirits - angels and evil spirits - demons, along with their ruler Satan.

The holy book of Christians is Bible, which in translation from Greek means "book". The Bible has two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is the oldest part of the Bible. The New Testament (actually Christian works) includes: four gospels (from Luke, Mark, John and Matthew); the deeds of the holy apostles; Epistles and Revelation of John the Evangelist.

In the IV century. n. NS. Emperor Constantine declared Christianity to be the state religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity is not one... It split into three streams. In 1054 Christianity was divided into the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches. In the XVI century. the Reformation, an anti-Catholic movement, began in Europe. The result was Protestantism.

And recognize seven Christian sacraments: baptism, anointing, repentance, sacrament, marriage, priesthood, and anointing of oil. The source of the doctrine is the Bible. The main differences are as follows. In Orthodoxy there is no single chapter, there is no concept of purgatory as a place for the temporary accommodation of the souls of the dead, the priesthood does not give a vow of celibacy, as in Catholicism. At the head of the Catholic Church is the pope, who is elected for life; the center of the Roman Catholic Church is the Vatican, a state that occupies several blocks in Rome.

It has three main streams: Anglicanism, Calvinism and Lutheranism. Protestants believe that the condition for the salvation of a Christian is not formal observance of rituals, but his sincere personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Their teaching proclaims the principle of a universal priesthood, which means that every layman can preach. Virtually all Protestant denominations have reduced the number of sacraments to a minimum.

Islam

It arose in the 7th century. n. NS. among the Arab tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. It is the youngest of the world. There are followers of Islam more than 1 billion people.

The founder of Islam is a historical figure. He was born in 570 in the city of Mecca, which at that time was a fairly large city at the intersection of trade routes. In Mecca, there was a shrine revered by most of the pagan Arabs - the Kaaba. Muhammad's mother died when he was six years old, his father died before the birth of his son. Muhammad was brought up in the family of his grandfather, a noble but impoverished family. At the age of 25, he became the manager of the estate of the wealthy widow Khadija and soon married her. At the age of 40, Muhammad acted as a religious preacher. He stated that God (Allah) chose him as his prophet. The preaching did not like the ruling elite of Mecca, and by 622 Muhammad had to move to the city of Yathrib, later renamed Medina. The year 622 is considered the beginning of the Muslim chronology according to the lunar calendar, and Mecca is the center of the Muslim religion.

The sacred book of Muslims is a processed record of the sermons of Muhammad. During the life of Muhammad, his statements were perceived as the direct speech of Allah and were transmitted orally. A few decades after the death of Muhammad, they were written down and will be the Koran.

In the doctrine of Muslims, an important role is played Sunnah - a collection of edifying stories about the life of Muhammad and Shariah - a set of principles and rules of conduct obligatory for Muslims. The most serious ipexa.Mii among Muslims are usury, drunkenness, gambling and adultery.

The place of worship for Muslims is called a mosque. Islam prohibits depicting humans and animals; hollow mosques are decorated only with ornaments. In Islam, there is no clear division into clergy and laity. Any Muslim who knows the Koran, Muslim laws and the rules of worship can become a mullah (priest).

Ritual is of great importance in Islam. You may not know the intricacies of faith, but you should strictly follow the main rituals, the so-called five pillars of Islam:

• pronouncing the formula for the confession of faith: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet”;
• performing a daily five-time prayer (namaz);
• observance of the fast in the month of Ramadan;
• giving alms to the poor;
• making a pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

There are many known religious movements that were formed at different times and have their own principles and foundations. One of the main differences lies in the number of gods people believe in, so there are religions based on belief in one god, and there is also polytheism.

What are these monotheistic religions?

The doctrine of one God is usually called monotheism. There are several currents that share the concept of a supercreative Creator. Understanding what a monotheistic religion means, it is worth saying that this is what the three main world movements are called: Christianity, Judaism and Islam. There are controversies over other religions. It is important to replace that monotheistic religions are distinctive trends, since some endow the Lord with personality and different qualities, while others simply exalt the central deity above others.

What is the difference between monotheism and polytheism?

We figured out the meaning of such a concept as "monotheism", and as for polytheism, it is the complete opposite of monotheism and is based on belief in several gods. Among modern religions, these include, for example, Hinduism. Adherents of polytheism believe that there are many gods, which have their own spheres of influence and habits. The gods of Ancient Greece are a prime example.

Scientists believe that polytheism first arose, which eventually passed on to faith in one God. Many are interested in the reasons for the transition from polytheism to monotheism, and so there are several explanations for this, but the most justified is one. Scientists believe that such religious changes reflect certain stages in the development of society. In those days, the strengthening of the slave system and the creation of a monarchy took place. Monotheism has become a kind of basis for the formation of a new society, which believe in a single monarch and God.

World monotheistic religions

It has already been said that the main world religions that are based on monotheism are Christianity, Islam and Judaism. Some scholars consider them a mass form of ideological life, which are aimed at strengthening the moral content in it. The rulers of the states of the Ancient East, during the formation of monotheism, were guided not only by their interests and the strengthening of states, but also by the possibility of exploiting people as efficiently as possible. The God of the monotheistic religion gave them a chance to find a way to the souls of believers and to gain a foothold on their throne as a monarch.

Monotheistic religion - Christianity

Judging by the time of its origin, then Christianity is the second world religion. It was originally a sect of Judaism in Palestine. A similar kinship is observed in the fact that the Old Testament (the first part of the Bible) is an important book for both Christians and Jews. As for the New Testament, which consists of four Gospels, these books are sacred only for Christians.

1. There is a monotheism in the subject of delusion in Christianity, since the basis of this religion is faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. For many, this is a contradiction in the foundations of monotheism, but in fact it is all considered the three hypostases of the Lord.
2. Christianity implies redemption and salvation, and people believe in God to sinful man.
3. Comparing other monotheistic religions and Christianity, it should be said that in this system life flows from God to people. In other currents, a person must make an effort to ascend to the Lord.

Monotheistic religion - Judaism

The oldest religion, which originated from about 1000 BC. The prophets used different beliefs of that time to form a new movement, but the only important difference was the presence of a single and omnipotent God, who requires people to strictly adhere to a moral code. The rise of monotheism and its cultural implications is an important topic that scholars continue to explore, and the following facts are highlighted in Judaism:

1. The founder of this movement is the prophet Abraham.
2. Jewish monotheism is established as the basic idea for the moral development of the Jewish people.
3. The course is based on the recognition of the one god Yahweh, who judges all people, not only the living, but also the dead.
4. The first literary work of Judaism is the Torah, which indicates the main dogmas and commandments.

Monotheistic religion - Islam

The second largest religion is Islam, which appeared later than other directions. This current originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD. NS. The essence of the monotheism of Islam lies in the following dogmas:

1. Muslims must believe in one God -. He is represented by a being who possesses moral qualities, but only to a superlative degree.
2. The founder of this movement was Muhammad, to whom God appeared and conveyed to him a number of revelations described in the Quran.
3. The Koran is the main Muslim holy book.
4. In Islam, there are angels and evil spirits called jinn, but all entities are in the power of God.
5. Every person lives by divine predestination, since Allah appoints destiny.

Monotheistic religion - Buddhism

One of the oldest religions in the world, whose name is associated with the important title of its founder, is called Buddhism. This movement arose in India. There are scientists who, listing monotheistic religions, mention this trend, but in fact it cannot be attributed to either monotheism or polytheism. This is explained by the fact that the Buddha does not deny the presence of other gods, but at the same time he assures that everyone obeys the action of karma. Considering this, it is incorrect to include Buddhism in the list when figuring out which religions are monotheistic. Its main provisions include:

1. No one except a person can stop the process of rebirth, since it is in his power to change himself and achieve nirvana.
2. Buddhism can take many forms depending on where it is practiced.
3. This direction promises believers deliverance from suffering, worries and fears, but at the same time, it does not confirm the immortality of the soul.

Monotheistic religion - Hinduism

The ancient Vedic movement, which includes various schools of thought and traditions, is called Hinduism. Many, describing the main monotheistic religions, do not consider it necessary to mention this direction, since its adherents believe in about 330 million gods. In fact, this cannot be considered an exact definition, since the Hindu concept is complex, and people can understand it in their own way, but everything in Hinduism revolves around one God.

1. Practitioners believe that it is impossible to understand one supreme God, therefore he is represented in three earthly incarnations: Shiva and Brahma. Each believer has the right to independently decide which embodiment to give preference to.
2. This religious movement does not have one fundamental text, so believers use the Vedas, Upanishads and others.
3. The important position of Hinduism indicates that the soul of each person must go through a huge number of reincarnations.
4. All living beings have karma, and all actions will be taken into account.

Monotheistic religion - Zoroastrianism

One of the most ancient religious trends is Zoroastrianism. Many religious scholars believe that all monotheistic religions began with this trend. There are historians who say that it is dualistic. It appeared in ancient Persia.

1. This is one of the first beliefs that introduced people to the struggle between good and evil. The light forces in Zoroastrianism are represented by the god Ahuramazda, and the dark ones - by Angra Manyu.
2. The first monotheistic religion indicates that each person should keep his soul pure by spreading goodness on earth.
3. The main meaning in Zoroastrianism is not cult and prayer, but good deeds, thoughts and words.

Monotheistic religion - Jainism

The ancient dharmic religion, which was originally a reformist trend in Hinduism, is commonly called Jainism. It appeared and spread in India. Religion monotheism and Jainism have nothing in common, since this trend does not imply faith in God. The main provisions of this area include:

1. All life on earth has a soul that possesses endless knowledge, strength and happiness.
2. A person should be responsible for his life in the present and the future, since everything is reflected in karma.
3. The purpose of this flow is to free the soul from the negativity that is caused by wrong actions, thoughts and speech.
4. The main prayer of Jainism is the Navokar mantra, and while chanting it, a person shows respect to liberated souls.

Monotheistic religions - Confucianism

Many scientists are sure that Confucianism cannot be considered a religion, and they call it the philosophical trend of China. The idea of ​​monotheism can be seen in the fact that Confucius was deified over time, but at the same time this trend does not practically pay attention to the nature and activities of God. Confucianism differs in many ways from the main world monotheistic religions.

1. Based on the strict implementation of existing regulations and rituals.
2. The main thing for this cult is the veneration of ancestors, as each clan has its own temple where sacrifices are performed.
3. The goal of a person is to find his place in world harmony, and for this it is necessary to constantly improve. Confucius proposed his unique program for the harmony of people with space.

The most powerful, influential and numerous of all the existing mainstreams, ahead of Buddhism and Islam, is Christianity. The essence of religion, breaking up into the so-called churches (Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant and others), as well as many sects, consists in reverence and worship of one divine being, in other words, the God-man, whose name is Jesus Christ. Christians believe that he is the true son of God, that he is the Messiah, that he was sent down to Earth for the salvation of the world and all mankind.

The religion of Christianity was born in distant Palestine in the first century AD. NS. Already in the first years of its existence, it had many adherents. The main reason for the emergence of Christianity, according to the ministers of the cult, was the preaching activity of a certain Jesus Christ, who, being essentially a demigod-half-man, came to us in a human form in order to bring people the truth, and even scientists do not deny his existence. Four sacred books have been written about the first coming of Christ (the second Christian world is just awaiting), which are called the Gospels. Written by his apostles (Matthew, John, as well as Mark and Luke, disciples of two others and Peter), the scriptures tell about the miraculous birth of the boy Jesus in the glorious city of Bethlehem, how he grew up, how he began to preach.

The main ideas of his new religious teaching were the following: the belief that he, Jesus, really is the Messiah, that he is the son of God, that there will be his second coming, there will be the end of the world and the resurrection from the dead. Through his sermons, he called to love others and help those in need. His divine origin was proved by the miracles with which he accompanied his teachings. Many sick people were healed by his word or touch, three times he raised the dead, walked on water, turned it into wine and fed about five thousand people with only two fish and five cakes.

He expelled all merchants from the Jerusalem temple, thereby showing that dishonest people have no place in holy and noble deeds. Then there was the betrayal of Judas Iscariot, accusation of willful blasphemy and impudent encroachment on the royal throne and a death sentence. He died, being crucified on the cross, taking upon himself the torment for all the sins of man. Three days later, Jesus Christ was resurrected and then ascended to heaven. About religion, Christianity says the following: there are two places, two special spaces that are inaccessible to people during earthly life. and paradise. Hell is a place of terrible torment, located somewhere in the bowels of the earth, and heaven is a place of universal bliss, and only God himself will decide who to send.

The religion of Christianity is based on several dogmas. The first is that the second is that it is threefold (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). The birth of Jesus took place on the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, God was incarnated in the Virgin Mary. Jesus was crucified and then died, having atoned for human sins, after which he was resurrected. At the end of time, Christ will come to judge the world, and the dead will be resurrected. Divine and human nature is inextricably linked in the image of Jesus Christ.

All religions of the world have certain canons and commandments, while Christianity preaches to love God with all our heart, and also to love our neighbor as ourselves. If you do not love your neighbor, you cannot love God.

Religion Christianity has its adherents in almost every country, half of all Christians are concentrated in Europe, including Russia, one quarter - in North America, one sixth - in South, and significantly fewer believers in Africa, Australia and

Monotheistic religions are defined as belief in the existence of only one God, who created the world, is omnipotent and interferes with everything that happens in the world. The broader definition of monotheism is belief in a single Creator. One can distinguish between exceptional monotheism, both all-encompassing and plural (polytheistic), which, recognizing different deities, postulates some basic unity. Monotheism differs from henotheism in a religious system in which the believer worships one Lord, without denying that others can worship different gods with an equal degree of faith and monotheism, recognizing the existence of many gods, but with constant worship of only one deity.

A broader definition of monotheism is characterized by the traditions of Babism, Cao Dai (Tsaodaism), Handoism (Chongdogyo), Christianity, Deism, Ekkankar, Hindu sects (Shaivism and Vaishnavism), Islam, Judaism, Mandaiism, Rastafari, Sikhism, Tengrism, Tenrikyo (Tenriism) Yezidism, Zoroastrianism. Also, elements of pre-monotheistic thought are found in early religious forms such as Atenism, Ancient Chinese religion, and Yahvism.

Definitions

Monotheism includes various Divine concepts:

1. Daism accepts the existence of the Divine and the creation of the world, but God is only the first cause. Daism denies his existence as a person (theism), as well as his intervention and control over events in nature and society.
2. Monism. This philosophical teaching is the beginning of everything. It is characteristic of the Hindu philosophical schools of Northern Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta, as well as Chinese Taoism. In these schools, one reality is the basis of existence, and spirit and matter are just two of its equivalent aspects.
3. Pantheism identifies God with nature as an expression of Deity. The archaic form of this teaching reads: God is in everything that exists. Everything around is God.
4. Panentheism. It is the belief that the universe is contained in God and is a part of him, but not everything is from God. The difference between pantheism and panentheism is that, according to the first, everything is God, while the second concept is everything in God.
5. Substantial monotheism is characteristic of local African beliefs and is by its very nature a form of polytheism. African beliefs say that there are many gods, but each of them is the reincarnation of a certain type of matter.
6. The Holy Trinity. Christian doctrine that is supported by most of his denominations. This is the opinion that God is the Holy Trinity. God is a being who simultaneously has three persons: God the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit.

Based on the above, we see that monotheism is heterogeneous.

Origin

Quasi-monotheistic claims of the existence of a "universal" Deity date back to the Late Bronze Age with the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten's "Great Hymn" to Athen. A possible tendency towards monotheism arose during the Vedic period of the Iron Age in South Asia. The Rig Veda demonstrates the concepts of Brahman monism, especially in the comparatively late tenth book, which dates from the early Iron Age - the Hymn of Creation. The Tibetan Bon religion from the twentieth century BC was the first recorded religion to claim that there is one God called Sangpo Bumtri. But religion does not encourage monotheistic worship of Sangpo Bumtri or any god for the salvation of the soul, but only focuses on karma.

From the sixth century BC, Zoroastrians believed in the supremacy of one Deity - Ahura Mazda as the "Creator of all" and the first being before all others. But Zoroastrianism was not strictly monotheistic because it venerated others along with Ahura Mazda. Ancient Hindu theology, meanwhile, was monistic but not strict in worship; it maintained the existence of many gods who were considered aspects of one supreme God - Brahman.

Numerous ancient Greek philosophers, including Xenophanes of Colophon and Antisthenes, believed in a similar polytheistic monism, which was close to monotheism, but did not reach it. Judaism was the first religion to conceive of the concept of personal monotheism in a monistic sense. The concept of ethical monotheism is based on the idea that morality comes only from God and his laws are unchanged. For the first time these postulates originated and were implemented in Judaism, but now they become the main principle of most current monotheistic beliefs, including:

• Zoroastrianism;
• Christianity;
• Islam;
• Sikhism.

According to Jewish, Christian and Islamic traditions, monotheism was the primary worship of humanity. This original religion is sometimes referred to as "Adamic".

There have been suggestions that the Abrahamic religions arose in opposition to polytheism, equal to Greek philosophical monotheism. Karen Armstrong and other religious scholars and philosophers wrote that the concept of monotheism gradually develops through a series of intermittent transitions - first, animism appeared, which turned into polytheism, that was transformed into henotheism and, as a result, transformed into real monotheism.

World monotheistic religions

Although all adherents of the Abrahamic faiths identify themselves as monotheists, Judaism does not consider Christianity to be monotheistic, referring only to Islam. Muslims also do not recognize modern Christianity as monotheistic due to the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, which, according to Islam, is not part of the original monotheistic Christianity preached by Jesus. Christians, however, argue that the doctrine of the Trinity is a true expression of monotheism, referring to the fact that the Trinity does not consist of three separate deities, but three persons existing co-essence (as one form) in the form of one. Consider the world's confessions.

Judaism

Judaism was the first monotheistic religion. The main feature of the Jewish faith is the belief in one absolute, just, omniscient, omnipotent, loving and provident sovereign God. He created the universe and chose the Jewish people to reveal the covenants contained in the ten commandments and ritual precepts - the third and fourth books of the Torah. Rules derived from such texts and oral tradition constitute a guide to Jewish life, although their implementation varies between different groups of practitioners. The Jew Moses was the greatest, main and irresistible prophet of all time.

One of the characteristics of Judaism that distinguishes it from other monotheistic religions is that it is viewed not only as a denomination, but also as a tradition and culture. Other religions transcend different nations and cultures, while Judaism becomes a belief and culture conceived for specific individuals. Judaism does not require non-Jews to join the Jewish people or adopt their religion, although converts are recognized as Jews in every sense of the word.

Christianity

There was considerable controversy among early Christians about the nature of God, some denying the incarnation but not the deity of Jesus (Docetism), others later calling for the Arian concept of God. This Christian question was to be one of the points considered at the first Council of Nicaea.

The first Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea (modern Turkey), convened by the Roman emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical council of bishops in the Roman Empire, and most of all it led to the emergence of the first form of Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. With the definition of denomination, a precedent was set for subsequent ecumenical councils of bishops (synods) to create statements of faith and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy, the purpose of which is to define a general doctrine for the church. One of the goals of the council was to resolve differences over the nature of Jesus in relation to the Father, in particular whether Jesus was the same substance as God the Father¸ or simply similar forms. All but two bishops leaned towards the first option.

Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Catholics and most Protestants) follow this decision, which was confirmed in 381 at the First Council of Constantinople and was fully developed through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers. They consider God to be a triune entity called the Trinity, consisting of three "persons":

• God the Father;
• God the Son;
• God the Holy Spirit.

Christians overwhelmingly argue that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the Nicene Creed, which gives the Orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity, begins: "I believe in one God."

Other Christian religions, such as Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share these views of the Trinity.

Islam

In Islam, Allah is the almighty and all-knowing creator and judge of the universe. Allah in Islam is strictly singular (Tawhid), unique (Wahid) and in essence one (Ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent. Allah exists without a place, and the Qur'an states that “no vision encompasses him, but he encompasses all visions. God is understanding. " Allah is the only God and is worshiped in Christianity and Judaism.

Islam emerged in the 7th century AD in the context of both Christianity and Judaism, with some thematic elements similar to Gnosticism. Islamic beliefs assert that Muhammad did not bring a new religion from God, but that it is the same that Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and all the other prophets practiced. Islam's claim is that God's message was corrupted, distorted, or lost over time and the Quran was sent to Muhammad to correct the lost message of the Torah, New Testament and previous scriptures from Hashem.

Hinduism

As an old religion, Hinduism inherits religious concepts encompassing:

• monotheism;
• polytheism;
• panentheism;
• pantheism;
• monism;
• atheism.

His concept of God is complex and depends on each person as well as tradition and philosophy.

Hindu views are broad and range from monism through pantheism and panentheism to monotheism and even atheism. Hinduism is not purely polytheistic. Hindu religious leaders and founders have repeatedly emphasized that although there are many forms of God, and there are many ways of communicating with him, God is one. Puja murti is a way of communicating with the abstract God (Brahma), which creates, maintains and dissolves creation.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism combines cosmogonic dualism and eschatological monotheism, which makes it unique among the religions of the world. Zoroastrianism proclaims the evolution in time from dualism to monotheism. Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion, although often viewed as dualistic, for its belief in the incarnation of the good Ahura Mazda (creative spirit) and the evil Angru Mainyu (destructive spirit).

Zoroastrianism was once one of the largest religions on Earth as the official religion of the Persian Empire.

Considering monotheistic beliefs, we see that in some systems similar deities, performing the same functions, were identified as one whole.

SECTION L III

HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES

T E M A 3

CHRISTIAN EUROPE AND THE ISLAMIC WORLD IN THE MIDDLE AGES

§ 13. Great migration of peoples and the formation of barbarian kingdoms in Europe

Barbarians and Rome. Causes of the Great Nations Migration. Death in

476 of the Western Roman Empire is considered to be the boundary between the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. The fall of the empire is associated with invasions of its territory barbarian tribes. The Romans called barbarians everyone who lived outside the Roman state, did not know the Latin language and was alien to Roman culture.

Warlike tribes lived in Central Europe Germans. At first, the Romans were able to repel their invasions. At the end of the IV century. many other barbarian peoples joined the Germans in their raids. Started Great migration of peoples... By this time, inequality arises among the barbarians. Their tribes are united in alliances headed by a leader (duke, king), whose power is already reminiscent of the power of the ruler of the state. The barbarians were attracted by the wealth of cities and villages, fertile fields and fat pastures of the Roman Empire.

The Eastern Roman Empire managed to withstand the blows of the barbarians. It was different in the West. The emperors raised funds for the upkeep of the army with great difficulty. The taxes were very high. Rebellions broke out in the provinces. Residents often expected the arrival of barbarians as liberators.

Even before the beginning of the widespread penetration of barbarians into the territory of the Roman Empire, Christianity began to penetrate into their midst. The bishop Ulfile managed to baptize the Germanic tribe ready. For the barbarians, the doctrine of the Trinity was very difficult. Therefore, many of them were baptized in the form Arianism. Arianism was recognized as heresy (a deviation from the dogmas of the orthodox Christian doctrine) at the Council of Nicaea in 325, but in the 4th-6th centuries. it was spread among a significant portion of Christians. The Arians denied the Trinity of God, they believed that God is one, and Jesus Christ is not consubstantial with God the Father, but only similar to him. It was into Arianism that Ulfil was baptized by the Goths. Also became Arians vandals, Burgundians, Lombards and glad of other tribes.

Formation of barbarian kingdoms. In 410 g. Visigoths(western

Goths), led by Alaric, took Rome. A few years later, for the settlement of the Visigoths, Rome provided land in the south of Gaul. So in 418, the first barbarian Visigothic kingdom. Soon the Visigoths took over other territories in Gaul and Spain.

Even earlier, the tribes of the Vandals and Alans passed through Gaul and Spain to North Africa. In Africa arose Vandal-Alan kingdom. In 455, the Vandals made a sea raid on Rome, subjecting it to a terrible defeat. In the same years, the Germanic tribes angles, Saxons, Utes launched an invasion of Britain. They defeated the Celtic kingdoms that existed on the island after the withdrawal of the Roman troops and formed 7 barbarian Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In Gaul, to the east of the Visigoths, the Burgundians created their kingdom.

The barbarians also ruled in Italy. The Roman army here consisted almost entirely of barbarians, whose leaders ruled on behalf of the emperors. In 476, one of these leaders, Odoark, overthrew the western emperor, and sent his crown to Constantinople. From now on, the eastern emperor was considered the supreme ruler of the barbarian kingdoms. However, he had no real power over them. Tribes soon invaded Italy Ostrogoths(Eastern Goths) under the leadership of King Theodoric (493 - 526) and, having defeated the state of Odoacer, created their kingdom here.

Kingdom of the Franks arose almost simultaneously with the Ostrogothic kingdom. In 486, the king of the Salic (seaside) francs Clovis led their resettlement to Northern Gaul. Soon, the Franks subdued a number of neighboring Germanic tribes - the Alemans, the Turingians, defeated the troops of the Visigothic kingdom and recaptured South Gaul from it.

The Goths and other Germans took a significant part of the land from the inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The Franks, in contrast to them, almost did not take away the land from the local residents, but divided among themselves the empty former possessions of the emperor. Therefore, the Gallo-Roman population was more friendly to the Franks than to other barbarians. In addition, Clovis and all the Franks adopted Christianity in the orthodox form that the inhabitants of Gaul adhered to, and not in the form of Arianism, like other Germans. Clovis generously distributed valuables and lands to bishops and monasteries. Clovis' policy towards local residents was continued by his successors. Of all the barbarian kingdoms, the Frankish proved to be the most stable.

In general, the barbarian kingdoms were states with a weak central authority, there were sharp contradictions between barbarians and local residents. This predetermined the instability of the political situation in Europe.

Barbaric truths. Much can be learned about the life of the barbarian kingdoms from the records of their laws of the 5th-9th centuries. These laws are called barbaric truths.

Barbaric truths were common law records. However, the barbaric laws were significantly influenced by Roman law.

This influence was especially strong in the truths of the Visigoths and Burghund. In all truths, punishments for various crimes were indicated, the procedure for legal proceedings was determined, etc. The laws reflected the process of transition from the pre-state state of society to the state. Along with full-fledged free members of the tribe, the king, the nobility, on the one hand, and the dependent people and slaves, on the other, stand out as special categories of the population with their own rights. However, free community members engaged in agriculture still constituted the majority of the barbarian population.

The most famous document is "Salic truth”, Created by order of King Clovis in about 500. According to these laws, the life of a noble person (count) was defended by a wergeld (fine) of 600 solidi, a free person - 200, a dependent - 100, for the murder of a slave, the owner was paid 30 solidi. Salic truth testifies that the Franks lived in communities that were the owners of the land. Forests, pastures, water bodies were jointly owned, and arable land was owned by individual families. It was impossible to sell these plots, but the process of turning these plots into family property was outlined.

§ 14. The emergence of Islam. Arab conquests

Arab tribes. The homeland of the Arabs is the Arabian Peninsula. The nomadic tribes of the Arabs - bedouins- were engaged in cattle breeding. The city played a special role in the religious life of Arabia Mecca and his temple Kaaba. It became a place visited by all Arab tribes. A black stone that fell from the sky was set into the wall of the temple.

Muhammad's sermon. Each Arab tribe had its own gods, the tribes often fought with each other. A man named Muhammad managed to unite the Arabs under the banner of one God. Muhammad became the founder of the third world religion after Buddhism and Christianity. He was born around 570, was a shepherd, then a drover in caravans. In Mecca, Muhammad began to preach faith in one God Allah, called upon to carry out pious deeds - to redeem slaves free, to help the poor, orphans, widows. Poor people and slaves began to gather around Muhammad. But the wealthy Meccans forced him in 622 to flee from Mecca to Medina.

Uniting his followers in Medina, Muhammad fought against Mecca. It ended with the conclusion of peace, according to which the Meccans recognized the authority of Muhammad and accepted his teachings. Gradually, all the Arab tribes joined the teachings of Muhammad. With the aim of spreading the new doctrine throughout the world, the Arabs began military operations against Byzantium and Iran.

Muhammad's teachings were named Islam or Islam, and his followers were called Muslims. The most succinct teaching of Islam reads: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His prophet." Muslims

should pray five times a day, observe fasting during the month of Ramadan, pay tax to the poor and make a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. The basic commandments of Islam, as well as the sayings of Muhammad, are recorded in Quran. The Koran was also a collection of laws. Many Muslims also revere Sunnu - a collection of sayings of the prophet and stories about his life.

Arab conquests. After the death of the prophet (632), the Arabs chose rulers from among his companions and relatives. They got the title caliphs- substitutes or messengers of Allah. The caliphs concentrated spiritual and secular power in their hands. The first four caliphs continued their attack on neighboring lands. The Arabs were driven to this by the desire to convert the peoples to a new doctrine, as well as the growth in the number of their tribes, which could no longer feed themselves on the Arabian Peninsula, the thirst for prey. The main force of the conquerors was their magnificent cavalry (horse army).

The first campaign began in 633 on Iran. The Iranians were defeated, the Arabs seized huge treasures. By 651, they had conquered all of Iran and invaded the territory of modern Afghanistan. Byzantium became the second direction of the offensive policy. After long battles, Armenia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt were conquered. More than once the Arabs besieged Constantinople itself, but desperate resistance forced them to retreat. In Africa, the Arabs conquered not only the possessions of Byzantium, but also the nomadic peoples of the Sahara - the Berbers. Through the Strait of Gibraltar, the conquerors invaded the Iberian Peninsula. In 714 the Visigothic kingdom was destroyed. All Spain, with the exception of the mountainous territory in the north, came under the rule of the Muslims. The conquests in the East also continued. The Arabs occupied Central Asia, part of India, defeated the Chinese at the Battle of Talas in 751, but did not go further.

Arab Caliphate. After the first four caliphs, he seized power over the Arabs and the entire territory they conquered. genus of umey poisons from Mecca (661 - 750). The Umayyads moved the capital of the Arab Caliphate to Damascus. The vast territory of the Caliphate was divided into five governorships, led by emirs. Postal communication was established with all governorships, post stations were installed on the roads.

The Arabs settled in many of the conquered lands, mingled with the local population. Gradually, the Arabic language became more and more widespread. For a long time, the conquerors did not close Christian and other churches on the conquered territory, did not prevent residents from performing old religious rituals. However, all non-Muslims were heavily taxed. Those who converted to Islam were exempted from them. Therefore, gradually, many became Muslims. Several centuries later, such once Christian countries as Egypt, Syria, Palestine became Islamic, their inhabitants began to speak Arabic. The population of Iran, Central Asia, North-West India became Muslim, but local languages ​​have survived here.

Later, Islam spread to other territories not subject to the caliphate.

The unity of the Muslims was fragile. Many did not recognize the Umayyad caliphs. The adherents of the fourth caliph Ali, a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, considered the Umayyads to be traitors to the work of the prophet. Muslims split into two streams. Ali's supporters were called Shiites, and supporters of the caliphs - Sunnis, because in addition to the Koran, they considered the Sunnah to be the sacred book. There were more Sunnis than Shiites, but in some areas (for example, in Iran) Shiites predominated. In different parts of the caliphate there were uprisings against both the Arab authorities and the Umayyads. In the end, the Umayyads were overthrown and almost all were exterminated.

In 750, a dynasty seized power in the Caliphate Abbasids - descendants of Uncle Muhammad. Under them, the capital was moved to the city of Baghdad. Under the new dynasty, the conquests almost ceased. Only in the Mediterranean Sea did the Arab fleet capture many islands and southern Italy and ravaged the shores of southern Europe.

The collapse of the Caliphate. From the beginning of the IX century. The Arab Caliphate entered a period of disintegration. Its territory was too large, peoples with different levels of development lived there very different. Emirs gradually became the masters of their provinces. The first to fall away was Spain, where the Cordoba Caliphate arose. Then Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, Central Asia, Iran, Arabia separated.

From the end of the IX century. real power in the remnants of the Caliphate was in the hands of armed groups of slaves and foreigners. In 945 Baghdad was captured by Bunds - the rulers of one of the states of Iran.

In 1055 Baghdad was taken by the Seljuk Turks who came from Central Asia and conquered the entire Middle East. The Caliph became a Muslim high priest under the Bunds and Seljuks, having lost secular power. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad and executed the Caliph. Until 1517, the Abbasid caliphs lived in Cairo. After the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks, the Turkish sultan assumed the title of caliph.

Arab culture. The Arabs mastered the knowledge and traditions of the conquered peoples, developed them on the basis of Islam and the Arabic language, which became not only the national language, but also the language of literature and science.

Under the Umayyads, Damascus was decorated with luxurious palaces and mosques, the most famous of which was the Mosque of the Caliph Walid (the Umayyad Mosque), rebuilt in 705 from the Cathedral of St. John. Even then, Damascus jewelry and fabrics became world famous. But most of all, Damascus became famous for the steel from which weapons were made.

Scientists from all over the world gathered at the court of the caliphs. Their labors were generously rewarded by the rulers. Schools were founded in Baghdad, Bassor, Bukhara, Kufa, as well as extensive libraries in Alexandria, Baghdad and Cairo. In Spain alone, the Arabs founded 14 universities and many schools, five public libraries.

Thanks to the Arabs, the words "algebra" appeared in European languages,

"Alcohol", "azimuth", "zenith", etc. In long-distance campaigns, military leaders were required to mark the lands they had conquered on maps. Descriptions of unknown lands were left by many Arab scholars and travelers. The Arabs have achieved the greatest successes in medicine. In Baghdad, Ispogani, Firuzabad, Bukhara, Alexandria and Cordoba in the VIII-IX centuries. they founded medical schools. Among the most famous physicians are Aharun, described smallpox, Avicenna, who published the "Canon of Medicine", which for centuries was the main guide of Arab and European doctors. He wrote many works on medicine Averroes. In mathematics, the Arabs introduced the use of numbers and the decimal system.

Poetry flourished among the Arabs from the earliest times. They sang love adventures, military exploits. Arabian fairy tales have gained worldwide fame " Thousand and One Nights".

§ 15. Features of the development of the Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire. From the IV century. the center of the economic and cultural life of the Roman state moved to the East. The best architects, jewelers and artists lived in Constantinople.

In special workshops, handwritten books were made, decorated with magnificent miniatures. Throughout the early Middle Ages, the empire remained a great maritime power.

The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire included territories with ancient agricultural traditions. Free and semi-free peasants continued to play a significant role in agricultural production, in contrast to the West, where slave labor was widespread. Relying on the economic power of the state, the eastern emperors managed to repel the attacks of the barbarians.

An attempt to restore the Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire reached its peak during the reign of the emperor Justinian(527-565). He was born in Macedonia to a poor peasant family. His uncle, the Emperor Justin, was enthroned by soldiers. Justin made his nephew his co-ruler, then Justinian became the ruler of the empire.

Justinian tried to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders. In 534, under the blows of his troops, the Vandal state in North Africa fell. Then the war began with the Ostrogothic kingdom, where the daughter of Theodoric then ruled. The inhabitants of Italy initially supported the Byzantines. In 536, the troops of Justinian captured Rome. However, the arbitrariness of the imperial soldiers caused discontent among the population. The new Ostrogothic king Totila accepted slaves into his army and gave them freedom. He took land from large Roman owners and distributed them to the Ostrogothic and local peasants. As a result, Totila won a number of victories, in 546 he took Rome. The turning point in the war happened in 552 to Italy from Byzantium

a huge new army arrived. In the decisive battle, the Ostrogoths and former slaves fought for life and death, but were defeated. Totila died. By 555, Italy was conquered.

Justinian also waged war with the Visigoths in Spain, where he achieved significant success. It seemed that dreams of rebuilding the Roman Empire were about to come true. But the rule of the Byzantines, their restoration of the former order and heavy taxes everywhere caused discontent. Justinian's conquests were fragile. So, almost all of Italy was soon captured by the tribes of the Lombards, who created their kingdom there.

Justinian's laws. During the reign of Justinian, "Code of Civil Law" - collection of Byzantine laws. It included the laws of the Roman emperors of the 2nd - early 4th centuries, the laws adopted by Justinian, the statement of authoritative lawyers of antiquity and a short textbook of law.

There were two central ideas in Justinian's legislation: the unlimited power of the emperor and the union of the state with the church. In addition, much attention in the laws was paid to the issues of trade, the provision of money and inheritance. The basis of all civil law was the concept of complete private ownership.

Slavization of the Balkans. From the middle of the VI century. Slavic tribes living in Central Europe east of the Germans moved from raids on Byzantium to settling the Balkan Peninsula. According to the Byzantine author, the Slavs "can in no way be enslaved or subjugated." Already under Justinian, raids took place almost every year. Under his successors, the Slavs invaded the empire and settled on its lands.

South of the Danube, the Slavs formed in the 7th century. union of seven tribes. In the 70s. VII century. the lands of this union were invaded by the Turkic tribes of the Bulgarians, who roamed the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. The Bulgarian Khan Asparukh defeated the Byzantine army. The Khan attracted the union of seven Slavic tribes to his side and founded a virtually independent Slavic-Bulgarian state on the lands of Byzantium. First Bulgarian kingdom existed from 681 to 1018. The Turkic Bulgarians quickly disappeared among the Slavs.

The Slavs had a huge impact on the development of Byzantium. In the course of their settlement in the Balkans, large land holdings of the magnates were destroyed, in which the labor of slaves and dependent people was used. A peasant neighborhood community was established. The peasants became free, but they were imposed by state taxes. The Slavs themselves, especially the southern ones (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.), experienced a tremendous Byzantine influence. In 864 the Bulgarian Prince Boris was baptized by Byzantium.

Byzantine culture. Ancient education was preserved in Byzantium, and up to the 12th century. education was here at a higher level than anywhere else in Europe. Primary education was given in

private schools. Secondary education received under the guidance of a teacher using antique manuals. It included spelling, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, etc. In the middle of the XI century. in Byzantium were opened and higher schools - legal and philosophical.

The most famous architectural monument of Byzantium was Saint Sophie Cathedral, erected in Constantinople under Justinian.

The period from the 9th to the 12th century became the "golden age" in the history of Byzantine culture. At this time, the most beautiful temples were erected in Byzantium. Their walls and vaults were completely covered with mosaics and frescoes.

§ 16. Empire of Charlemagne and its disintegration. Feudal fragmentation in Europe

Kingdom of the Franks. Military reform of Karl Martell. At

sons and grandsons of King Clovis, the Franks conquered the Kingdom of Burgundy and subjugated many Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. The bulk of the troops of the Frankish kings were free communal peasants. However, over time, the communities of the Franks began to disintegrate. Under the influence of Roman customs, plots of land passed into the ownership of individual families. Often impoverished due to participation in frequent wars, the Franks gave their plots to a large landowner or monastery. These people fell into dependence on the owners of the land, began to work for them. Such Franks could no longer participate in the militia. They did not have the means to purchase weapons and armor, and the owner of the land did not want to let his workers go to war.

The number of kings' warriors declined sharply. The royal power weakened, the nobility reckoned with it less and less. From the middle of the 7th century. Frankish rulers began to be called lazy kings. One after another, people who were completely incapable of government ascended to the throne. The courtiers were in charge of everything. A particularly large role was played by majordoms(elders at home).

At the beginning of the VIII century. mayord Karl Martell(Hammer) managed to curb the willfulness of large landowners. Some of them were executed, and their lands went to the mayord. At this time, a formidable danger loomed over Western Europe. Gaul was invaded by the Arabs. Karl Martell led the fight against the conquerors.

Previously, the Franks fought mainly on foot. The basis of the Arab army was the cavalry. The experienced rider easily overpowered many of the militia on foot. In addition, the Franks' militia was sharply reduced. Karl Martell took measures to create an efficient and reliable cavalry. He distributed plots of land to warriors from all free strata of the population. The ownership of this land was conditional. A plot of land was given for the duration of the service and was not inherited. The size of the plot was determined so that the warrior could support himself and his horse from the income from it. Usually it was one village with

peasants.

Later, such land began to be inherited, but the condition of service was preserved. If the heir did not want to serve the owner of the land, then he did not inherit the plot. This conditional inheritance was called feud or flax.

The initiative of Karl Martell had great consequences for the development of the whole of Europe, but it also gave immediate results. In 732, the army of the mayordom defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Poitiers.

The reflection of the Muslim threat increased the authority of Karl Martell in the eyes of all Christians. At the request of the head of Christians in Western Europe, Pope (Bishop) of Rome, Karl Martell supported the preachers of Christianity in the German lands. Among these preachers, a monk stood out Boniface, the first bishop of Germany. After the death of Karl Martell, his son Pepin the Short became mayord. On Boniface's advice, Pepin overthrew the last "lazy king" and became king himself. Boniface helped the new king secure the support of the pope. In gratitude, the Franks began a war with the Lombards, who were Arians and were at enmity with the popes. Pepin the Short defeated the Lombards and handed over the lands they had conquered in Central Italy under the rule of the pope. The so-called Papal State. Pepin managed to return the lands seized by the Arabs in the south of Gaul.

The conquests of Charlemagne and the rebuilding of the Roman Empire. Under Pepin's son Carla(768-814) the size of the Frankish state doubled. But not only for his conquests, Charles received the nickname the Great during his lifetime. He became a model for the rulers of European states for many centuries. The very word "king" in the Slavic languages ​​comes from his name.

At the beginning of his reign, Charles finally defeated the Lombards and annexed Northern Italy. Then Bavaria was conquered. The Franks managed to conquer some lands in northern Spain from the Arabs. In alliance with the Slavs, Charlemagne fought for a long time with the Avar tribe, who then settled on the territory of modern Hungary. One of the Slavic princes managed to capture the capital of the Avars. Soon the Franks and Slavs exterminated all the Avars.

The most difficult for Charles was the war with the German tribe of the Saxons. It lasted over 30 years. The Franks repeatedly defeated the Saxons, but as soon as their army left, Saxony rebelled. Karl resorted to cruel reprisals. Tens of thousands of Saxons were executed, many were resettled deep into the kingdom, and the inhabitants of Gaul moved to their lands. The Slavs also helped Charles in the Saxon wars.

Charlemagne's campaigns resulted in the creation of a huge state. In 800, the Pope, during a Christmas service in Rome, placed the imperial crown on the king's head. This is how the empire was restored in western Europe. Byzantine emperor, who was still considered the supreme sovereign of all barbarian

kings, at first did not want to recognize the title of Charlemagne. However, after a few years, the Byzantines had to come to terms with the existence of a new empire.

The center of government of the empire was the imperial court. Locally, most cases were decided by those appointed by the ruler graphs, and bishops. Charlemagne constantly traveled around his possessions, tried his subjects, etc. The emperor spread the Christian faith everywhere. For refusing to be baptized, for disobeying the clergy, for not observing posts in the empire, the death penalty was imposed.

Carolingian Revival. The rise of culture during the time of Charlemagne and his first successors - the Carolingian Renaissance - is associated with the desire to use art and education to create the ideal Christian state. Charles wanted to revive the scholarship and education of Roman times. The ruler's assistants in the dissemination of culture were the best scholars gathered by him at the court in his capital, Aachen. The most prominent educator and close friend of Charlemagne was Alculin from Britain. He was the greatest scholar and theologian of his time. Alkulin was also an energetic organizer of enlightenment. Throughout the empire, on behalf of the emperor, he opened schools, provided them with teachers and everything they needed. The number of literate people in the Frankish state has increased significantly.

In Aachen, Alculin created a school called Court Academy. The ruler himself, his sons, the children of the courtiers studied there. Classes were held in the form of a friendly conversation. Historian Frank Eingard became the most famous among the graduates of the academy. Later he wrote the book The Life of Charlemagne. This small work became the model that all medieval historians followed.

Charlemagne became famous as the creator of temples, bridges, roads, canals, palaces. A magnificent palace was erected in Aachen. Next to the palace there was a temple - the only building from the time of Charles that has survived to this day. He was called "a miracle of wondrous and high beauty."

The collapse of the empire. Reasons for fragmentation. In 814 Charlemagne died. His son and heir Louis was distinguished by great piety, for which he received the nickname Pious. He, like his father, patronized the enlightenment. However, unlike his father, he had a weak character, easily submitted to other people's influence. Counts-governors gradually turned into independent rulers again. Louis already in 817 divided the empire between his sons. Soon began strife.

With renewed vigor, the struggle broke out after the death of Louis in 840. His eldest son, Emperor Lothair, was severely defeated by his younger brothers. In 843 in the city Verdun Charlemagne's three grandsons finally divided up the empire. Lothar, retaining the title of emperor, he received only Italy and a narrow strip from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. Karl the Bald became king West Frankish state, a Louis the German

- king East Frankish state. Later, the possessions of the brothers turned into states that still exist today - France, Germany and Italy.

Many other European states were born in the early Middle Ages. So, in Britain, the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms eventually united. In 1066, these lands were conquered by the Duke of Normandy (a region in northern France), William the Conqueror, who became king England. To the east of Germany, Slavic states were formed - Poland, Czech Republic, Rus. On the middle Danube, where the nomadic Hungarians came, over time arose Hungarian kingdom. Kingdoms formed in the north of Europe Denmark, Norway, Sweden. In all these countries, after the initial unity, there also came the period of feudal fragmentation.

The reason for the collapse of the early medieval states was not only the strife of the rulers. So, in the empire of Charlemagne, different peoples, united by force of arms, no longer wanted to live under a single rule. The inhabitants of the West Frankish kingdom eventually came to be called French. The inhabitants of Italy were called Italians, and the inhabitants of the East Frankish kingdom were called Germans. It is characteristic that the first documents in national languages ​​appeared during the struggle of the grandchildren of Charlemagne: the brothers Louis the German and Charles the Bald swore to stand against Lothair and consolidated this oath in records in German and French.

Viceroys of rulers in different parts of states (dukes, earls) ceased to reckon with the supreme power. Small rulers found it much easier to manage and defend their small territories.

The descendants of the owners of the feuds, who once received them from Charlemagne, his father and grandfather, now served those rulers on whose land their possessions were located. After all, only they could protect them or provide additional land for faithful service. However, the owner of the fief was subordinate to the count or duke only during the war, when he went on a campaign as part of his army. In peacetime, in his feud, he was completely independent and ruled the people who inhabited his land at his discretion.

In Europe, the strengthening of feudal fragmentation was facilitated by the fact that the inhabitants of individual regions and even individual villages needed little connections with other regions or villages. Everything that people needed for life - food, clothing, things, tools - they made themselves, exchanged with their fellow villagers or their closest neighbors. Europe was dominated by natural economy. Trade has almost disappeared.

§ 17. The main features of Western European feudalism

What is feudalism. Classical Middle Ages in Europe (X-XIII

centuries) was the heyday of feudalism. The word "feudalism" comes from the word "feud" - hereditary land ownership for service. The person who received the feud was a vassal (servant) of the one who provided him with land. The one who endowed the feud was the lord (senior). Both seniors and vassals were called feudal lords. The feudal lord was also a lord for all the inhabitants of his feud.

By the X-XI centuries. in Europe, almost all of the land was divided into feuds. At that time they said: "There is no land without a seigneur." All feudal lords became virtually independent rulers in their domains. However, a connection was maintained between the feudal lords, which protected the state from complete disintegration. This connection is depicted in the form of the so-called

"Feudal staircase". At its top level was the king or emperor - the supreme owner of all lands and the supreme lord in the state. It was believed that the king distributed large areas to his vassals - princes, dukes, counts. Those, in turn, allocated separate parts of their principalities, duchies and counties to their own vassals - barons. The barons also had vassals - knights. Word

"Knight" in translation from German means horseman, cavalryman. As a fief, the knights received an estate - a village or part of a village. The knights were the bottom rung of the "feudal ladder".

There was a rule: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." This meant that the vassal served only his immediate liege. The king, for example, could not call for the service of a baron - a vassal of a duke, and a duke - a simple knight. That is why the power of kings was then very weak.

The lord gave land to the vassal, helped him and protected him from enemies. The vassal, at the call of the master, joined the ranks of his army. As a rule, military service was compulsory for a vassal for 40 days a year. For the rest of the days spent in the saddle, he received a special payment from the lord. In certain cases, the vassal also gave gifts to the lord, ransomed him from captivity, etc. After the death of the owner, the feud was succeeded by his eldest son. The reasons for the emergence of feudalism. During the Middle Ages, wars were frequent. After the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne, all the countries of Europe were shaken by bloody strife. Even worse in the 9th-10th centuries. there were devastating raids of the Normans (inhabitants of Scandinavia and Denmark), Arabs, Hungarians, who at times threatened the very existence of European society. To be saved from complete destruction and devastation, it was necessary to have a reliable army. Improvements in military affairs (for example, the introduction of horseshoes for horses and stirrups for saddles) dramatically raised the importance of a professional knightly army (horsemen with heavy weapons and in heavy armor). Thanks to the horseshoes, the horse could carry a heavily armed, iron-bound knight, who, leaning on stirrups, with a spear and

sword hit the enemy.

The knight became a formidable force, but each such warrior and his horse now had to support dozens of people. To replace massive militias

small detachments of professional warriors come. Feudal orders ensured the existence of a sufficiently reliable military force to protect the entire society.

Three estates of feudal society. In the Middle Ages, people were divided into classes of praying, fighting and working. These estates differed in their rights and duties, which were established by laws and customs.

V belligerent class(feudal lords) included the descendants of noble people of barbarian tribes and noble inhabitants of the Western Roman Empire conquered by them. The position of the belligerents was different. The richest ruled entire regions, and some simple knights were sometimes very poor. However, only feudal lords had the right to own land and rule over other people.

V working class included both the descendants of impoverished free people from among the barbarians and Roman citizens, and the descendants of slaves and colonies. The overwhelming majority of those who worked were peasants. They were divided into two categories. Some peasants remained free people, but lived on the lands of the feudal lords. The feud was divided into master's land and peasant allotments. It was believed that these allotments to the peasants were provided by the feudal lord. For this, the peasants worked on the master's land (corvee) and paid taxes to the feudal lord (quitrent). The feudal lord judged the population of his feud, levied fines for breaking the laws. Another category of peasants was called serfs. They were considered

"Attached" to their allotments and could not leave them. The obligations of the serfs (corvee, quitrent) were heavier than those of the free. They were in personal dependence on the feudal lords, they were sold and bought together with the land. The property of the serfs was considered the property of the lord. Serf servants were actually in the position of slaves.

In addition to the belligerents and workers, there was the class of worshipers. He was considered the main one and was called the first. It was believed that a feudal lord or a peasant was not able to fully comprehend the full depth of the teachings of Christ and independently communicate with God. Besides, people are constantly tempted by the devil. Only the Christian church and its ministers - the clergy - could explain to everyone the divine laws, connect a person with God, protect him from the wiles of the devil and atone for his sins before God. The main duty of the class of worshipers was worship. The priests also baptized children, married newlyweds, accepted the confession of the repentant and forgave them their sins, and gave communion to the dying.

Unlike the fighting and working people, the clergy was an open class. Priests could be natives of two other estates. For the maintenance of the first estate, workers were charged a tenth of their income (church tithe). In the direct possession of the church were considerable lands.

Peasants. Peasants in the Middle Ages, in addition to farming and cattle breeding, hunted, fished, collected honey and wax from forest bees. They

they sewed clothes and shoes for themselves, built dwellings and baked bread, paved roads and erected bridges, dug canals and drained swamps. But agriculture remained their main concern. The needs of its development turned many villagers into true inventors. The success of agriculture is largely due to the invention of the peasants heavy plow with opener- a device for dumping the earth. They also came up with a collar for a horse. He allowed these animals to be used for plowing fields.

The peasants mastered threefields. Have been withdrawn winter varieties plants resistant to winter cold. Manure and other fertilizers began to be applied to the fields. The cultivation of vegetables and fruits has become widespread. Vineyards gradually spread not only in the southern, but also in the relatively northern regions, up to England.

Each peasant family cultivated its own allotment. This allotment was a long strip of land in a large field. Nearby were the allotments of other families, as well as strips of the master's land. After the harvest, cattle were driven out onto a large field. He not only grazed, but also fertilized the arable land. Therefore, the work on the allotments had to be carried out by the villagers at the same time, and everyone had to plant the same crops. The villagers helped neighbors in trouble, jointly protected fields and herds from robbers, cleared new fields, and used forests and meadows.

The villagers decided the most important issues at meetings, elected the headman - the head of the peasant communities. The community was also necessary for the peasants in their relations with the feudal lord. The elder monitored the completeness of the payment of the quitrent and at the same time ensured that the peasants were not charged in excess of the norm.

Feudal lords. Near the village was the fortified dwelling of her lord - lock. Castles were built simultaneously with the folding of feudalism itself. In the IX - X centuries. they were built to protect against the Normans, Arabs and Hungarians. The castles hid the inhabitants of the entire district. At first, castles were built from wood, then from stone. These fortresses were often surrounded by a moat, over which a drawbridge was thrown. The most inaccessible place of the castle was a multi-storey tower - donjon. Above in the keep lived a feudal lord with his family, and below - his servants. There was a dungeon in the basement. Each floor of the keep, if necessary, turned into a small fortress. From the top floor in the wall of the tower, a secret spiral staircase was often laid to the basement. From the basement there was an underground passage to a distant place. Therefore, even with the capture of the castle, the feudal lord could avoid death or captivity. However, it was almost impossible to take the castle by storm. Only after a long siege could the defenders surrender due to hunger. But the castle usually held large supplies of food.

Chivalry. The entire life of the class of the belligerents was spent in campaigns and battles. The sons of the feudal lords began to prepare for the knightly service from childhood. Without many years of training, it was impossible not only

fight in heavy armor of a knight, but even move in it. From the age of 7, the boys became pages, and from the age of 14 - the squires of the knights. Knights came to the lord's service with pages and squires, with lightly armed servants. This small detachment, led by a knight, was called the "spear", the feudal army consisted of such detachments. In battle, the knight fought with the knight, the squire - with the squire, the rest of the warriors showered the enemy with arrows. At 18, squires became knights. At the same time, the senior handed him a belt, a sword and spurs.

Gradually developed rules of knightly honor. One of the main qualities was considered loyalty to the lord and generosity to the vassals. An even more important quality was valor. A valiant knight must constantly strive for deeds, show courage and even recklessness in battle, despise death. Valor is associated with nobility and courtesy to the enemy. A real knight will never secretly attack, but, on the contrary, will warn the enemy about the upcoming battle, during a duel with him he will have the same weapon, etc. Military friendship was sacred for the knights, as well as revenge for an insult.

The rules of knightly honor ordered the protection of the church and its ministers, as well as all the weak - widows, orphans, beggars. There were many other rules. True, in real life they were very often violated. Among the knights there were many unbridled, cruel and greedy people.

The favorite entertainments of the feudal lords were hunting and tournaments - military competition of knights in the presence of spectators. True, the church condemned the tournaments. After all, the knights spent their time and energy on them, necessary to fight the enemies of Christianity.

§ 18. Medieval city

The phenomenon of a medieval city. In the Middle Ages, the overwhelming majority of the population lived in the countryside. The townspeople were few, but their role in society far exceeded their numbers.

During the Great Migration of Nations, many cities were destroyed. The few remaining fortified cities were inhabited by kings, dukes, bishops with attendants and servants. The townspeople were engaged in agriculture in the vicinity of the city, and sometimes inside it.

From about the X century. big changes are taking place. In cities, the main occupation of the inhabitants is craft and trade. Cities that have survived from Roman times are growing rapidly. New cities appear.

By the XIV century. There were so many cities that from almost anywhere in Europe it was possible to get to the nearest city within one day. The townspeople by that time differed from the peasants not only in their occupations. They had special rights and duties, wore special clothes, etc. The class of workers was divided into two parts - peasants and townspeople.

The emergence of cities as centers of trade and crafts. Skla-

The expansion of cities as centers of crafts and trade was caused by the progressive development of society. The population grew, and so did its needs. So, the feudal lords were increasingly in need of things that were brought by merchants from Byzantium and Eastern countries.

The first cities of the new type were formed as settlements of merchants who traded with these distant countries. In Italy, in the south of France, in Spain since the end of the 9th century. some Roman cities were revived, new ones were built. The cities of Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, Marseille, Barcelona, ​​Venice became especially large. Some merchants from these cities sailed on ships in the Mediterranean Sea, others delivered the goods they delivered to all corners of Western Europe. Places of exchange of goods have emerged

- trade fairs(annual markets). There were especially many of them in the County of Champagne in France.

Later, in the XII-XIII centuries, trading cities also appeared in the north of Europe - Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Danzig, etc. Here merchants transported goods across the North and Baltic Seas. Their ships often fell prey to the elements, and even more often - to pirates. On land, in addition to bad roads, merchants had to deal with robbers, who were often knights. Therefore, trading cities united to protect sea and land caravans. The union of the cities of Northern Europe was called the Hansa. Not only individual feudal lords, but also the rulers of entire states had to reckon with the Hansa.

There were merchants in all cities, but in most of them the main occupation of the population was not trade, but craft. Initially, artisans lived in the villages and castles of the feudal lords. However, it is difficult to feed on handicrafts in rural areas. Few people bought handicrafts here, because subsistence farming prevailed. Therefore, artisans sought to move to a place where they could sell their products. These were areas of fairs, crossroads of trade routes, river crossings, etc. In such places there was usually a feudal lord's castle or a monastery. Craftsmen built dwellings around a castle or monastery, later such settlements turned into cities.

The feudal lords were also interested in these settlements. After all, it was possible to receive a large rent from them. The seniors themselves sometimes brought artisans from their fief to one place, and even lured them away from their neighbors. However, most of the residents came to the cities on their own. Often serf artisans and peasants fled from their lords to the cities. The earliest cities - centers of crafts - emerged in the county of Flanders (modern Belgium). In such of them as Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, woolen fabrics were made. Sheep breeds were bred in these places

with thick wool and comfortable looms are created.

Since the XI century. cities grew especially rapidly. A city with a population of 5-10 thousand inhabitants was considered large in the Middle Ages. The largest cities in Europe are Paris, London, Florence, Milan, Venice, Seville, Cordoba.

Towns and lords. All cities arose on the land of the feudal lords. Many

the townspeople were in personal dependence on the lord. Feudal lords ruled cities with the help of their servants. The settlers from the villages brought the habit of living in the community to the cities. Very soon, the townspeople began to gather together to discuss issues of urban governance, elected the head of the city (mayor or burgomaster), and assembled a militia to defend against enemies.

People of the same profession usually settled together, went to the same church, and communicated closely with each other. They formed their unions - craft workshops and trading guilds. The workshops monitored the quality of handicraft products, established the order of work in workshops, guarded the property of their members, fought with competitors in the person of non-workshop artisans, peasants, etc. Guilds and guilds, to protect their interests, sought to participate in the management of the city. They sent their troops to the city militia.

As the wealth of the townspeople grew, the feudal lords increased their levies from them. Urban communities - communes over time, they began to resist such actions of the feudal lords. Some lords expanded the rights of cities for a substantial ransom. However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, a stubborn struggle developed between the feudal lords and the communes. It sometimes lasted for many decades and was accompanied by hostilities.

The outcome of the struggle depended on the balance of forces of the parties. The rich cities of Italy not only freed themselves from the rule of the feudal lords, but also took away all the lands from them. Their castles were destroyed, and the lords were forcibly relocated to the cities, where they began to serve the communes. The neighboring peasants became dependent on the cities. Many cities (Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan) became the centers of small republic-states.

In other countries, the successes of the cities were not so impressive. However, almost everywhere the townspeople freed themselves from the power of the feudal lords and became free. Moreover, any serf who fled to the city became free if the lord could not find him there and return within one year and one day. “The city air makes a person free,” said a medieval proverb. A number of cities have achieved full self-government.

Some small towns remained under the rule of lords. A number of large cities, in which kings and other powerful rulers lived, also failed to become independent. The inhabitants of Paris and London received freedom and many rights, but along with the city councils, these cities were also ruled by royal officials.

Shop organizations. The main body of the shop management was a general meeting of all members of the shop, which was attended only by independent members of the shop - master. The craftsmen were the owners of the tools of labor, a craft workshop.

As demand increased, it became difficult for the foreman to work alone. This is how pupils, after apprentices. The student took an oath not to leave the master until the end of his studies; the master undertook to teach him honestly his craft and fully support. But the position of the students was, as a rule, not easy: they were overwhelmed with unbearable

work, kept from hand to mouth, beat for the slightest offense.

Gradually, the student became an assistant to the master - an apprentice. His position improved, but he remained a part-time worker. To become a master, an apprentice had to fulfill two conditions: after training, travel to improve the craft, and then pass the exam, which consisted in making an exemplary work (masterpiece).

At the end of the Middle Ages, workshops become in many ways a brake on the development of handicrafts. The craftsmen made it difficult for the apprentices to join the workshop. There were benefits for the sons of craftsmen.

Contradictions within urban communities. In the struggle against the lords, all the townspeople were united. However, the leading position in the cities was occupied by large merchants, owners of urban land and houses (patricians). All of them were often relatives and firmly held the city government in their hands. In many cities, only such people could vote for mayor and city councilors. In other cities, one rich man's vote was equal to several votes of ordinary townspeople.

When distributing taxes, when recruiting into the militia, in the courts, the patriciate acted in his own interests. This situation provoked resistance from the rest of the inhabitants. The handicraft workshops, which brought the city the greatest income, were especially dissatisfied. In a number of cities, guilds rebelled against the patrician. Sometimes the rebels overthrew the old rulers and established fairer laws, elected rulers from among their midst.

The importance of medieval cities. The townspeople lived much better than most of the peasants. They were free people, fully owned their property, had the right to fight with weapons in their hands in the ranks of the militia, they could only be punished by a court decision. Such orders contributed to the successful development of cities and medieval society as a whole. Cities have become centers of technological progress and culture. In a number of countries, the townspeople became allies of the kings in their struggle for centralization. Thanks to the activities of the townspeople everywhere, commodity-money relations, in which the feudal lords and peasants are involved. The growth of commodity-money relations eventually led to the liberation of the peasants from their personal dependence on the feudal lords.

§ 19. The Catholic Church in the Middle Ages.

Crusades

The split of the church. In the Middle Ages in Western Europe, the church organization, headed by the Pope, played a huge role.

Initially, most Christians did not recognize the authority of the bishop of Rome - the pope. The bishop of Constantinople, the patriarch, had great influence, and the popes obeyed him. Rome itself after the conquests of Justinian was under the rule of Byzantium.

However, at the end of the VI century. this power has weakened. Emperors employed

reflection of the onslaught of the Arabs and Slavs, could not help Rome in its struggle against the Lombards. In 590, Gregory I, a skillful and wise ruler, became pope. He stopped the onslaught of the Lombards and managed to provide Rome with everything necessary. Gregory, nicknamed the Great, has won enormous authority. In most countries of Western Europe, the church began to obey the Pope. Later, in 754, there was Papal State.

As the popes grew stronger, the divisions between the Christians of the West and the East expanded. The western church was called Roman Catholic (general), and the east - Greek Orthodox

(true). There were disputes over many issues. For example, the Catholic Church taught that divine services can be conducted only in Latin, while the Orthodox Church - in the languages ​​of every nation. Reading the Bible, according to Catholics, was allowed only for church ministers, and preachers of Orthodoxy often created writing for different nations so that everyone could read the Holy Scriptures. Catholics were baptized with five fingers, and Orthodox - with three or two. In Catholicism, priests were eventually forbidden to have a family, and in Orthodoxy, celibacy extended only to monks.

An open clash took place in the second half of the 9th century. under Pope Nicholas and Patriarch Photius. Nicholas announced the deprivation of the dignity of the patriarch from Phogius. In response, Photius cursed the Pope. During the dispute, Nikolai used a collection of ancient documents that he allegedly found. It followed from them that Emperor Constantine the Great transferred to the then pope power over the entire church and full power over the western part of his empire. Only in the XV century. Italian scholars have proven that this entire collection of documents is a forgery.

The final split of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches took place in 1054.

Organization of the Catholic Church. In its structure, the Catholic Church resembled a “feudal staircase”. The lowest link was priests parishes. The parish united the inhabitants of the village or part of the city who prayed in one temple. They became priests after a special ceremony. He was accompanied by bishop- the head of the priests of the diocese (region).

Parish priests elected the bishop of the diocese. During the rite of dedication, the bishop was given a ring and a staff as a sign of power over the believers. Bishops of several dioceses were often under headship archbishop. Bishops and archbishops obeyed the pope.

Cluny Reform. Monastic orders. Monasteries enjoyed colossal authority. The life of the monastery was determined by the charter. Several times a day the monks performed joint prayer. The rest of the time was devoted to work. They worked in the fields, grazed cattle, cultivated vegetable gardens, were engaged in trade and crafts. Monks copied books, wrote chronicles, opened schools and hospitals.

However, as wealth grew, many monks forgot about strictness and

purity of monastic life. Lands with peasants turned out to be in the possession of monasteries. The monks worked less and less themselves and more and more lived at the expense of the peasants. Heads of monasteries - abbots surrounded themselves with luxury, sought pleasure.

This situation aroused protest not only among the population, but also among individual monks. Some of them founded new monasteries, where strict rules were revived. From the X-XI centuries. the monastery of Cluny in France became the center of the struggle for the purification of monasticism. Adherents of Cluny appeared in other monasteries, where the old order was restored. The Cluny Reform affected the entire church. The popes banned the trade in office, removed corrupt and dissolute priests and bishops. Church ministers were forbidden to have a family so that there was no incentive to accumulate wealth. The reform significantly strengthened the authority of the church.

However, over time, vices associated with the growth of wealth again spread in the church environment. Dissatisfaction with the existing situation led to the emergence in the XIII century. orders of beggar monks. These monks believed that they should not live in monasteries, but wander around the world and preach the teachings of Christ. The first was the order mop'ho-Franciscans. It was founded by an Italian Francis of Assisi. He preached love for people and even animals, abandonment of property, voluntary poverty. The Franciscans by their example showed everyone the possibility of a sinless life. Another association of beggar monks was the order Dominicans, originated in Spain. The Dominicans became famous for defending Catholicism.

The struggle of the popes and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. In the X century. the rulers of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) led the struggle against the raids of the Hungarians, created a powerful knightly army. Initially, there was no clear “feudal ladder” in Germany. The king's vassals were not only dukes and earls, but also many knights. King Otto I in 955 in the battle on the Lech River finally defeated the Hungarians. Otto strengthened his power, subjugated many dukes. To enhance his authority, the king established a special relationship with the church. He gave her many privileges, but arrogated to himself the right to establish bishops - he handed them a ring and a staff. The Church in Germany passed from the Pope to the King.

Otto was favored by the decline in the authority of the pope at that time. The nobility of Rome and the Italian kingdom put their henchmen on the papal throne. Otto made several campaigns in Italy, took the title of King of Italy, defeated the Pope's enemies. In 962, the Pope crowned Otto with the imperial crown. This is how the empire was re-created, which later became known as Holy Roman Empire. The popes fell into complete dependence on the emperors. Because of this, the papacy lost its authority even more. Some ministers of the church were eager to change the situation. It was they who initiated the Cluny reform. Initially, they were supported by the emperors, successors of Otto-

on, because they also wanted to increase respect for the church, which was one of the pillars of their power. However, having strengthened the church, the popes began a struggle to free themselves from the power of the emperors. A law was passed, according to which only a few bishops-cardinals could participate in the election of popes. The emperor was suspended from participation in the elections. The pope then proclaimed that the bishops should obey only him and not the emperor.

In 1073, an ardent advocate of transformation became pope Gregory VII. An open struggle for power over the bishops unfolded between him and Emperor Henry IV. It continued under their successors. In the end, the popes won an almost complete victory over the emperors. They were helped by the fact that over time the imperial power in Germany weakened, and Italy actually fell away from the empire.

In the XII century. the power of the popes increased. The word of the clergy was law for the common man, for the feudal lord, and for the king. Attempts by some rulers to resist the popes ended in failure. In the middle of the XII century. Frederick Barbarossa became emperor. He was an intelligent and determined person. He managed to somewhat strengthen his power in Germany and wanted to subjugate Italy again, but his knightly army was defeated by the militia of Italian cities, which supported the pope. The defeat of the emperor further strengthened the importance of the popes. The most powerful of them was dad Innocent III ( 1198-1616). Innokenty called himself viceroy of Christ on the ground. He overthrew and appointed emperors and kings. By order of Innokenty, wars began. The Pope tried to curb feudal strife and clashes between Christian countries, and to direct all his forces to the fight against heretics and Muslims.

Crusades. Spiritual knightly orders. Termination at the beginning of the XI century. raids of the Hungarians, Arabs, Normans contributed to the successful economic development of European countries and the rapid growth of the population. However, by the end of the XI century. this led to an acute shortage of free land. Wars and their companions - famine, epidemics - have become more frequent. People saw the cause of all misfortunes in the punishment for sins. The best way to get rid of sins was considered to visit holy places, primarily Palestine, where the Holy Sepulcher was located. But after the seizure of Palestine by the Seljuk Turks, who were notable for their intolerance of non-Muslims, the pilgrimage there became almost impossible.

The idea of ​​a campaign against Muslims to free the Holy Sepulcher became more and more widespread in Europe. It was not only a godly deed, but also a way to provide land for both feudal lords and peasants. Everyone dreamed of rich booty, and merchants hoped for trade benefits. In 1095 the Pope Urban II called for a march to Palestine. The participants of the campaign decorated their clothes and armor with crosses - hence its name. Both feudal lords and peasants took part in the First Crusade.

In 1096-1099. the crusaders conquered Syria and Palestine from the Seljuk Turks. There the Kingdom of Jerusalem arose, the vassal possessions of which were the counties of Edessa and Tripolitan,

principality of Antioch. The Crusader states waged constant wars with the Muslim rulers of the surrounding countries. Gradually, the crusaders, of whom there were not very many in the East, began to lose their possessions. There were seven more major crusades. The peasants almost did not participate in them, but the knights were often led by emperors and kings. However, all these campaigns were almost unsuccessful. During the Fourth Crusade, the crusaders attacked Constantinople and took it in 1204. They created the Latin Empire on the lands of Byzantium. Only in 1261 the rulers of the Nicene Empire, which had survived from Byzantium, managed to liberate Constantinople. But Byzantium did not restore its former power.

In Palestine, with the support of the popes, spiritual orders of chivalry were created. Those who entered the order became warrior monks. The first to arise Order of the Knights Templar. Then was created Order of the Hospitallers. Later arose Warband. The knight monks lived off the lands that belonged to the orders in Palestine and in Europe. The detachments of the order knights differed from the usual feudal army in their discipline. However, over time, the orders grew richer, and their members ceased to show their former zeal in military affairs. Many of them surrounded themselves with luxury. It was even claimed that the Templars, who were especially rich, secretly renounced Christianity.

Meanwhile, the onslaught of the Muslims intensified. In 1187 the Sultan Salah ad-Din(Saladin), who united Syria and Egypt, conquered Jerusalem. In 1291, the last crusader fortress in Palestine fell

Despite the failure and great sacrifices, the Crusades had a positive impact on Western Europe. They contributed to the acquaintance of Europeans with the higher culture of Byzantium and the Eastern countries at that time, borrowing many achievements. The positions of European merchants were strengthened. This led in the future to the development of commodity-money relations, the growth of cities and handicraft production. The outflow of the most belligerent part of the feudal lords and their death contributed to the strengthening of royal power in a number of European countries.

Heresies and the fight against them by the church. Heresies, i.e. deviations from church dogmas, arose during the formation of the Christian church. However, from the XII-XIII centuries. they especially intensified. Heretics pointed out that many priests, including the pope himself, do not observe what they preach, live in luxury, lead a dissolute life, and interfere in the affairs of states. The heretics called for a return to the foundations of the early Christian church, when its ministers were poor and persecuted, but they showed everyone an example of righteousness.

Some heretics taught that the world is ruled by two equal forces - God and the devil. They called themselves the people of God, and all their opponents, including the clergy led by the Pope, were the servants of the devil. The heretics called for the destruction of temples and icons, for the extermination of all the ministers of the church. There were heretics who acted

for the equality of all people not only before God, but also in earthly life. They offered to divide all property equally. In the communities of such heretics, property was considered common; sometimes even wives were in common.

The heretics refused to pray in "spoiled" churches, to pay church tithes. In some places, even feudal lords became heretics, including the rulers of large regions, dissatisfied with the claims of the Roman popes to secular power. At the beginning of the XIII century. in parts of northern Italy and southern France, heretics constituted the majority of the population. Here they exterminated the clergy and created their own church organization.

The ministers of the church condemned heresies in their sermons and cursed heretics. However, persecution and punishment became the main way to combat heresies. Heresy suspects were subject to arrest, interrogation with the use of torture, and then execution. Not relying on the zeal of secular rulers who pitied their subjects, the popes created an ecclesiastical court - a saint inquisition(investigation). A person who fell into the hands of the Inquisition was subjected to the most sophisticated torture. The usual punishment for heretics was their public burning alive at the stake. Sometimes they burned up to 100 or more people at once. In addition to heretics, the Inquisition also persecuted people suspected of having links with the devil - witches and sorcerers. Many hundreds of thousands of women have died at the stake in Western Europe over these ridiculous accusations. The property of the convicts was divided between the church and local authorities. Therefore, the wealthy townspeople especially suffered from the Inquisition.

In the area where there were a lot of heretics, crusades were organized. The most croup