Where and when the religion of Buddhism originated. What is Buddhism - the first acquaintance with the teachings of Buddha

- the valley of the Ganges River, one of the most developed parts of Ancient India. In the IV century. BC. on the territory of ancient India, there were many disparate warring states. The most influential religion was Brahmanism, where the priests were the dominant force. Brahmanism did not contribute to the strengthening of the secular; on the contrary, it was in conflict with it. According to the cult practice of Brahmanism, the society was divided into estates. The priests belonged to the upper class. The rest of the estates (they included warriors, merchants and sudras) were much lower in position than the priests.

To strengthen and enhance the authority of kings and warriors, a new one was chosen - Buddhism. This religion did not recognize the ritual sacrifices of the Brahmins, it was in opposition to the faith of the priests. Buddhism was the first of the religions to recognize a person not as a member of a certain class, but as an individual. To achieve the highest spiritual perfection, only the merits of a person are important. In the middle of the 1st millennium, against the background of the state crisis in Ancient India, many people appeared without property. It was among these ascetics that a new religion was born, which promises deliverance from suffering by giving up desires and achieving nirvana.

Founder of Buddhism

After recuperating, Gautama found a secluded spot under a tree. Gautama Siddharta plunged into contemplation, where the highest truth - Dharma - was revealed to him. At the age of 35, Gautama Siddharta attained Enlightenment. It was after this that they began to call him Buddha, which means "the Enlightened One." For the rest of his life, the Buddha traveled through the Central Valley of the Ganges teaching his disciples. Following the Buddha's death, followers formed many different currents of early Buddhism.

Buddhism, along with Islam and Christianity, is considered a world religion. This means that she is not identified by the ethnicity of her followers. Any person can practice it, regardless of their race, nationality and place of residence. In this article, we will briefly review the main ideas of Buddhism.

A summary of the ideas and philosophy of Buddhism

Briefly about the history of the emergence of Buddhism

Buddhism is one of the most ancient religions in the world. Its origin took place in opposition to the then dominant Brahmanism in the middle of the first millennium BC in the northern part of India. In the philosophy of Ancient India, Buddhism occupied and occupies a key place, closely intertwined with it.

If we consider the emergence of Buddhism briefly, then, according to a separate category of scientists, this phenomenon was facilitated by certain changes in the life of the Indian people. Around the middle of the 6th century BC. Indian society was hit by a cultural and economic crisis. Those tribal and traditional ties that existed before that time began to gradually undergo changes. It is very important that it was during that period that the formation of class relations took place. Many ascetics appeared, wandering around the vastness of India, who formed their own vision of the world, which they shared with other people. So, in opposition to the foundations of that time, Buddhism appeared, which deserved recognition among the people.

A large number of scholars believe that the founder of Buddhism was a real person named Siddhartha Gautama , known as Shakyamuni Buddha ... He was born in 560 BC. in a well-to-do family of the king of the Shakya tribe. From childhood he knew neither disappointment nor need, he was surrounded by boundless luxury. And this is how Siddhartha lived his youth, unaware of the existence of disease, old age and death. The real shock for him was that he once encountered an old man, a sick man and a funeral procession while walking outside the palace. This influenced him so much that, at the age of 29, he joins a group of itinerant hermits. So he begins to search for the truth of being. Gautama tries to understand the nature of human troubles and tries to find ways to eliminate them. Realizing that an endless series of reincarnations is inevitable, if not getting rid of suffering, he tried to find answers to his questions from the sages.

After spending 6 years wandering, he tested different techniques, practiced yoga, but came to the conclusion that such methods cannot be enlightened. He considered meditation and prayer to be effective methods. It was when he was spending time meditating under the Bodhi tree that he experienced enlightenment, thanks to which he found the answer to his question. After his discovery, he spent several more days at the site of a sudden insight, and then went to the valley. And they began to call him Buddha ("enlightened"). There he began to preach the doctrine to people. The very first sermon took place in Benares.

Basic concepts and ideas of Buddhism

One of the main goals of Buddhism is the path to nirvana. Nirvana is a state of awareness of one's soul, achieved through self-denial, rejection of the comfortable conditions of the external environment. Buddha, after spending a long time in meditation and deep reflection, mastered the method of controlling his own consciousness. In the process, he came to the conclusion that people are very attached to worldly goods, overly worried about the opinions of other people. Because of this, the human soul not only does not develop, but also degrades. Having achieved nirvana, one can lose this addiction.

The Inherent Four Truths Underlying Buddhism:

1. There is the concept of dukkha (suffering, anger, fear, self-flagellation and other negatively colored experiences). Everyone is under the influence of dukha to a greater or lesser extent.
2. Dukkha always has a reason that contributes to the emergence of addiction - greed, vanity, lust, etc.
3. You can get rid of addiction and suffering.
4. One can completely free oneself from dukha through the path leading to nirvana.

Buddha was of the opinion that it is necessary to adhere to the "middle path", that is, each person must find a "golden" mean between a wealthy, satiated with luxury, and an ascetic, deprived of all the benefits of humanity, a way of life.

There are three main jewels in Buddhism:

1. Buddha - he can be either the creator of the teaching himself or his follower who has attained enlightenment.
2. Dharma is the teaching itself, its foundations and principles, and what it can give its followers.
3. Sangha is a community of Buddhists who adhere to the laws of this religious teaching.

To achieve all three gems, Buddhists have recourse to the fight against three poisons:

• detachment from the truth of being and ignorance;
• desires and passions that contribute to the emergence of suffering;
• incontinence, anger, inability to accept anything here and now.

According to the ideas of Buddhism, everyone experiences both physical and mental suffering. Disease, death and even birth are suffering. But such a state is unnatural, so you need to get rid of it.

Briefly about the philosophy of Buddhism

This teaching cannot be called only a religion, in the center of which is God, who created the world. Buddhism is a philosophy, the principles of which we will briefly consider below. Teaching involves help in directing a person to the path of self-development and self-awareness.

In Buddhism, there is no idea that there is an eternal soul that atones for sins. However, everything that a person does and in what way will find his imprint - it will definitely return to him. This is not divine punishment. These are the consequences of all actions and thoughts that leave traces on their own karma.

In Buddhism, there are basic truths revealed by the Buddha:

1. Human life is suffering. All things are impermanent and transient. As it arises, everything must be destroyed. Existence itself is symbolized in Buddhism as a flame devouring itself, and yet fire can only bring suffering.
2. Suffering arises from desires. Man is so attached to the material aspects of existence that he is frantically hungry for life. The more this desire is, the more he will suffer.
3. Getting rid of suffering is possible only through getting rid of desires. Nirvana is a state in which a person experiences the extinction of passions and thirst. Thanks to nirvana, a feeling of bliss arises, freedom from transmigration of souls.
4. To achieve the goal of getting rid of desire, one must resort to the eightfold path of salvation. It is this path that is called "middle", allowing you to get rid of suffering by rejecting extremes, which is something in between torturing the flesh and indulging in physical pleasures.

The eightfold path of salvation presupposes:

• correct understanding - the most important thing to do is to realize that the world is full of suffering and sorrow;
• correct intentions - you need to take the path of limiting your passions and aspirations, the fundamental principle of which is human egoism;
• correct speech - it should be good, so it is worth watching your words (so that they do not ooze evil);
• right actions - one should do good deeds, refrain from non-virtuous actions;
• a correct way of life - only a worthy way of life that does not harm all living things is able to bring a person closer to deliverance from suffering;
• correct efforts - it is necessary to tune in to good, drive away all evil from yourself, carefully following the course of your thoughts;
• correct thoughts - the most important evil comes from our own flesh, getting rid of the desires of which you can get rid of suffering;
• correct concentration - the eightfold path requires constant training, concentration.

The first two stages are called prajna and involve the stage of attaining wisdom. The next three are the regulation of morality and correct behavior (shila). The remaining three steps represent the discipline of the mind (samadha).

Directions of Buddhism

The very first who supported the Buddha's teachings began to gather in a secluded place during that period while it rained. Because they renounced any property, they were called bhiksa - "beggars." They shaved their heads bald, put on rags (mostly yellow) and moved from place to place. Their life was unusually ascetic. In the rain, they hid in caves. They were usually buried where they lived, and a stupa (dome-shaped crypt structures) was erected on the site of their graves. Their entrances were made deafly walled up and buildings for various purposes were erected around the stupas.

After the death of Buddha, a convocation of his followers took place, who canonized the teaching. But the period of the greatest flourishing of Buddhism can be considered the time of the reign of Emperor Ashoka - III century. BC.

Can be distinguished three main philosophical schools of Buddhism , formed in different periods of the existence of the doctrine:

1. Hinayana... The monk is considered the main ideal of the direction - only he can get rid of reincarnations. There is no pantheon of saints who could intercede for a person, there are no rituals, the concept of hell and heaven, religious sculptures, icons. Everything that happens to a person is the result of his actions, thoughts and lifestyle.
2. Mahayana... Even a layman (of course, if he is pious), on a par with a monk, can achieve salvation. The institution of bodhisattvas appears, who are saints who help people on the path of their salvation. The concept of paradise, a pantheon of saints, images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas also appear.
3. Vajrayana... It is a tantric teaching based on the principles of self-control and meditation.

So, the main idea of ​​Buddhism is that a person's life is suffering and one should strive to get rid of it. This teaching continues to spread confidently across the planet, gaining more and more adherents.

What is religion?

When and where did Buddhism originate?

Primary sources

The question of the historical credibility of the Buddha

His biography and origin

First Sermon and the First Disciples

Activities of the Buddha

1. The Buddha's Departure to Nirvana

10. Teachings of the Buddha

11 the truth about the four divisions

12.Intellectualism of Buddhist Ethics

13 love in Buddhism

14 the negative nature of his commandments

15 Nirvana

16 Buddhist community

17 Monk Image

18 germ of a cult

19 spread of Buddhism

20. Assessing Buddhism. Positive and Negative Sides

21. Conversion to Christianity

22 The Importance of World Religions

1.What is religion?

Religion is one of the most ancient and basic (along with science, education, culture) forms of spiritual culture. In modern science, a popular definition of religion, proceeding from the recognition of its basis of belief in God ("religion is faith in God"). Along with it, other approaches to understanding the essence of religion are widespread: religion is a system of views, based on the concept of the sacred, the saint, religion is one of the forms characteristic of a culture of adapting a person to the surrounding world, satisfying his spiritual needs.

The core of religion is faith, it is in it that the most important features are found that determine the place of religion in the relationship of man and world. Religious faith consists of:

self-believers, i.e. belief in the truth of the foundations of religion-learning;

knowledge of the most essential provisions of the doctrine;

recognition and adherence to the moral norms contained in the religious requirements for a person;

compliance with the norms and requirements presented to the daily life of a person;

There are different types of religions: monotheistic, political; ritual and salvation religions, national and world.

The main world religions in the modern world are Christianity, Islam, Buddhism

Biggest religions today:

Christianity - 1,024 million people

Islam - 529 million people

Hinduism - 478 million people

Confucianism - 305 million people

Buddhism - 268 million people

Shinto - 60 million people

Taoism - 52 million people

Judaism - 14 million people

2.When and where did Buddhism arise?

Buddhism emerged on the territory of Hindustan in the 6th century BC, thus being the first in time of its emergence as a world religion. At that time, a class society had already developed in India, there was a number of states, the economic basis of which was the exploitation of members of agricultural communities. The sharpness of class antagonisms was aggravated by the existence of the fast system.

Representatives of the highest oasta - brahmanas played an important role in social and political life. The religion of Brahmaism illuminated the existing division of the East.

3. Primary sources.

The emergence of Buddhism is associated with the life and preaching activities of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha. Some Buddhist scholars of the last century denied the historicity of the Buddha. Most researchers believe that there is no reason to question the actual existence of the founder of Buddhism.

According to legends, Buddha was born in 560 BC. The place of birth is considered to be the north-east of India. He was the son of the head of the Shan name. At the age of 29, amazed by the fact of the abundance of suffering people endured, Gautama parted with all the blessings and temptations of a luxurious life, left his wife as a young son and went on a journey. Finally, at a certain moment, Gau-tama, sitting under a tree, suddenly saw the truth, and Buddha, that is, enlightened, enlightened, wise. Died in 480 BC, laying the foundation of a crowded church-based sangha organization. This legend can claim to be accurate in all details.

The emergence of Buddhism was associated with the emergence of a number of works that became part of the classical body of Buddhism-tipi-taka, this word means in the Kali language “three vessels.” Tipitaka was modified around the 3rd century. The epic poems of Miwaghaiim dating back to the II century appear as a source of ancient Buddhism. Of great importance is the pictorial material contained on the steles and other structures.

4 the question of the historical credibility of the Buddha

In the history of the study of Buddhism, there have been attempts to prove the mystical image of Buddha and thus make the fact of the formation of this world religion inexplicable. These attempts are associated with the names of the Dutch explorer Kern and the French indologist Senar. Senar, with overwhelming scholarship and erudition, tried to depict the biography of the Buddha as a solar hero, explaining all the details of his life-mythological description of meteorological and cosmic facts.

5.His biography, origins

Buddha descended from the Sakiev family, who owned the small state of the Petal mountains. His birth was marked by non-customary signs; the brahmanas predicted to his father that his son would be a great king if he remained in the world and would become a Buddha, the liberator of the universe if he left the world.

At the age of 16, he married the beautiful Yasodhar, defeating his rivals in archery and other competitions. His life passed happily, amid all the abundance and wealth. Father deliberately surrounded him with all sorts of luxury and joy, so that he could get away from the monastic path. But one day, during the first departure from the palace of Siddart, he saw for the first time an old man, a sick man, a dead imonar. This spectacle excited the Tsarevich and gave him the thought of suffering. He imagined the need to find true bliss in order to save himself, and his sweet Yasodhara, and all-encompassing mankind. Imperceptibly he exits the turn of the palace, puts on the yellow cloak of a beggar monk and merges with the endless crowd that wanders along the dusty white roads of India. At that time the prince was 26 years old. Eight years later, until he found himself, felt himself bought by the Buddha and the redeemer of mankind.

At first he turned to the sages-monks, entrusting themselves to their leadership, but did not receive anything from them. From them he went to wander the country of Magadhai and came to Uruvela. Gautala spent six years in this forest, strenuously fasting, awaiting a momentous enlightenment. And for his five ascetic comrades-desires, desires and want to become his disciples. His body was disfigured from fasting and torture, and he felt himself far from the goal. Then he left this path and began to take food.

Once, sitting under a tree, Ivot understood the whole truth. The Buddha spent twenty-eight days under a tree, pondering over what was revealed to him in intuition. After this time, the evil Mara began to tempt him and tries to turn the Buddha away from the work of accomplishing human salvation. Knowing that the Buddha has invincible earthly desires, Mara chooses a different path. He advises the saint, having lost Nirvana, to be content with salvation for himself. But Buddha overcomes this great temptation of all the saints and ascetics and firmly answers Mara that he will enter Nirvana only when his holy law flourishes, expands and spreads over the earth and is announced to all people through his disciples, monks and nuns.

6 the first sermon to the first disciples

Confirmed in his intention to preach to save people, the Buddha went to Benares. He wanted, first of all, to enlighten those five monks who were saving together with him in the forest of Uru-Vela.

Five monks gladly listened to him and accepted dedication from him. Soon more new ones joined these martyrs, and when their number had grown to sixty, the Buddha was sent to preach. The teacher himself went to Uruvela, where he turned many Brahman and secular people on the path of salvation.

7 the activities of the buddha

The entire subsequent life of the Buddha was filled with travel and preaching. Three months a year (rainy season), Buddha and his disciples rested in some of the shelters set aside by their patron gods. Buddhist worshipers from all over India gathered here, hurrying to hear his preaching for salvation. Of these places, Buddha especially loved the huge park of Jetavanu, a gift from a merchant, glorified in many works of Buddhist literature. One Buddhist poet said about him:

Jetavana is a lovely garden,. Where the crowds of wise men walked

Where did the king of truth -

The place where my heart was joyful.

The rest of the time, Buddha and his disciples wandered around India, mainly in the region of the eastern states of Hindustan. His fame spread throughout India and meetings with him were found not only by monks, but by itzars, princes, royal dignitaries and wealthy merchants.

The result of these conversations was usually an invitation to the Buddha with all the disciples for lunch. After lunch, during which the owner and his family are serving, the Buddha says some lesson

When there were no such invitations, Buddha went to the neighboring village of mercy, according to the ancient monks, who used to go to the neighboring village of mercy. He did this with his disciples after the usual morning conversation with no-mi and spiritual exercises. fans.

8.Community

It must be assumed that the community of Buddha's disciples, while the teacher was still alive, was a closely knit order, which had its own rules and organization.

The reason is that the technique of a monastic community was a work in India for a long time after the Buddha, and in his outward appearance the Buddha with his disciples differed little from the numerous monastic communities of that time in India.

The outward signs of the Buddha's disciples were a yellow dress and a brita head; disciples renounced family ties, property, and observed strict chastity.

In the community there was no difference between the casti and the monastic dress smoothed out the differences between the slave and the master, rejected by the Sudra and Brahman.

The dominant mood of the community in the early years was a state of calm equilibrium, turning into a quiet, concentrated joy.

The states of ecstatic admiration were isolated cases and the general life of Buddhist monks was not characterized. All of them were distinguished by complete purity, peace of mind and devotion to the Buddha.

We would in vain look in the Buddhist sources for a characteristically Christian or a different disciple: all of them are one-faced, all speak the same language, differ in the same virtues and are engaged in the same activity. History, however, calls the names of the closest disciples of the Buddha, but this does not make them all personalities, all of them, who remain their own Buddhist individuals. , desires, sympathies.

Alongside the monks, who entered the community and made vows, there were hundred-secular people who accepted his teachings, but remained in the world without breaking off with their family and property. They served the community to the best of their ability with their gifts. Among such believers of the peace were kings, princes, brahmans.

Besides men, women were also accepted into the order. What would be their position among the monastics?

Here are some Buddhist texts depicting the relationship of Buddha to a woman:

How can we, Lord, - asks Ananda, the closest disciple of Buddha, - to deal with women?

Avoid the appearance, Ananda, replied the Buddha.

But if we see her, what should we do?

Don't speak with her

But if we have already talked to her?

Then be careful

And yet Buddha had to surrender to the insistence of women and accept them into the community, but their position was always humiliating and subservient; they were only tolerated, despite their extreme dedication to the community and tireless work in the community. Here is the request of one of his passionate followers, a certain Visakhi:

I would wish, Lord, all my life to give the community rain dresses, to feed the passing monks, to feed the traveling monks, to feed the sick brothers, to care for the sick, to give medicine, to distribute rice daily and give the community nuns bathing suits.

The Buddha, who first declares Visakhi, one hundred “the perfect are too exalted to agree to any desire,” gives his permission for this charitable activity.

9.The Buddha's retreat to Nirvana

For forty-four years the Buddha preached his teachings and gradually approached the limit of his life. He was 80 years old when he was severely ill and was close to death, but one thought tied him to this world: “it is not good for me to enter Nirvana, before I speak to those who cared about me, with the community of my disciples. I will overcome this illness with my strength and hold on to my life”.

And the Exalted One overcame his illness. He got up from his head and sat down in the shadows of the house to tell the disciples his last will:

“Be your own lights,” he said in his own sanctuary. Look for no other. Study the knowledge gained by me and returned to you, live in harmony with it so that your holy life will last for the joy of people. Truly, I tell you, the all-terrestrial is subject to perdition. Pray unpressually. In three months the Perfect One will enter Nirvana. "

After several conversations, when the teacher passed on to his disciples all that he had, he extinguished the will that kept him alive, and he began to wait for death.

After a month of wandering, he came as disciples to Kuzinar. There, in the forest, the disciples laid down their weary and sick teacher at the head of the north. The time for the blossoming of the trees had not yet come, but the two trees under which the teacher lay were over-covered with flowers, which rained down on the departing one; and the birds were loudly singing in the air.

You see, Ananda, - said the Perfect One, - the time of flowering has not yet come, but flowers are falling on the body of the Perfect One, and the heavenly wise men sing in the air to honor the Perfect One.

But the perfect needs a different glory

Disciples and disciples who live by righteousness and law - this is the true glory of the Perfect One.

Beloved disciple Ananda walked aside and mourned bitterly for the dying teacher, but the Perfect One told him to beckoned to him and told him with words full of deep, hidden despair and tra-gism:

“It’s not necessary, Ananda, don’t complain and don’t be sad. Didn’t I tell you about this earlier? It is inevitable - to part with everyone that is dear, with everyone you love. Everything that is born, that is created, that is done - is doomed to death. But you have long honored the Perfect with thoughts, words, your deeds, out of love, kindness, with joy, without lies. You have done Anand well. Strive, and you will be quick too. ”

The last words with which he addressed the coaches were:

"Truly I will tell you, my disciples, all that has been created is quick-dying. Strive incessantly."

And the spirit ascended from one ecstasy to another in all degrees of admiration and entered Nirvana.

At sunrise, the noble inhabitants of Kuzinara burned, in front of the city gates, the body of the Buddha with all the honors that turned out to be the fallen kings.

10 Buddha's teachings

The sermon of the Buddha, in the words of Menzies, is “no theory, but the path of salvation.” Therefore, we should have looked in vain for the sacred books of Buddhists of systematic cosmology, theology or psychology. Buddha himself formulated his teaching in four words: suffering, the chain of causes and the destruction of suffering.

And yet, although Buddhism does not have a systematic teaching about the world gods and the human soul, yet the Buddha could not do without the fact that his practical reasoning should not be based on the alleged metaphysics.

Preaching the renunciation of the withering away, he had to say that such a world, preaching about liberation from instincts, he inevitably taught about the human soul, etc. Therefore, we prefer to present the "way of salvation" with a brief description of the deep-seated worldview, which is assumed by the Buddhist preaching.

Buddhist philosophy, characterized by a strong subjective character, is more concerned with man. What is a man? He is nothing more than a bundle, an aggregate of mental states. Just as a carriage is only an assembly of wheels, nails, planks, and has nothing alike, except for the empty word “carriage,” so a person makes up the sum of his properties and states and nothing else. Personality is something ghostly and destroyed. Only those mental states that we lived with do not die. They follow us from one life to another, they do not allow a person to leave life and the chain of rebirth.

Theory of Migration

Gods are sometimes mentioned in Buddhist monuments, but they play no role in the teachings of the Buddha. He nowhere denies them, but nowhere does he put people in touch with them.

In the Buddhist religion there is one deity - the Buddha himself. In love with people, he agreed to incarnate and enter the chain of human suffering in order to preach deliverance to the people. But at the same time, he is not the source of divine powers, grace to the direct meaning of the word; people are saved, according to the Buddhist view, by the impersonality of the Buddha, not by his supernatural power, but by the knowledge that is revealed in his teaching.

In his dying word, the Buddatakas spoke of identity with the law he proclaimed. Let us now turn to this law.

1. Truth about four divisions

The plan of the Buddhist catechism was established by the teacher himself. It consists of four sections: the doctrine of suffering, the doctrine of the origin of suffering, the doctrine of the destruction of suffering, the practical path to the elimination of suffering. This is the basis of the whole law, the symbols of Buddhist beliefs.

What do you think, the Buddha asked his disciples, what is more, the water of the four seas or the tears shed by ours when you wander around this world and are sad and crying that you are given what you are looking for?

Suffering permeates everything that exists, and this suffering is not altered by the very fact of existence, because neither one blessed person, nor a brahmana, nor the gods can do so that what is subject to old age does not get old, so that that which is subject to disease does not hurt, that that which is subject to death does not die, that which is subject to fall lest perish that which is subject to perdition.

Suffering and being are synonymous. And wherever a person's gaze turns, in the past or in the future, he will see an endless, inexhaustible sea of ​​tears and an endless existence under different types of suffering.

This concept of suffering is closely related to Buddhism with the idea that “there is no immutable essence in this being”, that everything flows, changes, devouring itself and not being saturated. , regardless of the frequent gore-tei and torments of samsara (the sea of ​​life).

“Everything abides in flame. The eyes and all the senses are in flames, kindled by the fire of love, the fire of hatred, the fire of temptation; it is kindled by birth, old age and death, sorrow with cries of sorrow, care, suffering and despair. The whole world is shrouded in smoke, the whole world will be devoured by fire. "

What is the root of this suffering? Here we turn to the second section of Buddhist doctrine, the examination of the cause of suffering.

"The holy truth about the origin of misery is as follows: thirst for being and pleasure and for the desire that finds its own enjoyment on earth, thirst for pleasure, thirst for creation, thirst for power lead from rebirth to rebirth."

In other words, suffering is generated by our will, our desires. Where are the desires themselves? Desires originate from the perception of the world, perception originate from contact, contact with the world comes from the sense organs, the sense organs from our corporeality, but corporeality itself is a ghosts, visibility, generation of incorrect perception, the result. Therefore, the kingdom of suffering is destroyed with the acquisition of true knowledge, with the dying of all desires.

A monk must understand that the object of his desires, corporeality, is one appearance. “Considering a telo-bladder,” said the Buddha, “consider him like a ghost, broken with flowers the tempter’s arrows, and then go to the place where the king of death will not see you.

All the same - deception, ghosts are an illusion. There is nothing. But does this denial extend to human souls?

Many Buddhist texts answer this question in the negative. There is one passage that emphatically summarizes the illusionist views of Buddhism.

“The Teacher is only covered with armor when the following idea appears to his mind: I must lead to the perfect Nirvana countless multitude of beings, - I must lead them; and, however, neither their followers, nor me, the leader, exist. They do not really exist, because non-existence is the own character of everything that is recognized as existing. It’s as if a skilled wizard made a huge crowd of ghostly people appear at the crossroads of four great roads, which would fight among themselves and then kill each other. in fact, there were no people who appeared, killed or disappeared. "

Likewise, Buddhas lead to the perfect Nirvana countless multitudes of beings, and in fact there are no leading, unseen ones.

What can be the desires and passions of a monk who is imbued with such a worldview?

12. Intellectualism of Buddhist Ethics

The fourth part of the Buddhist symbol is faith, which constitutes ethics in the strict sense of the word.

The path to the elimination of suffering is a worldwide path: right speech, right decision, right faith, just cause, righteous life, righteous aspiration, righteous memory, righteous thinking. Development of this formula is the content of numerous conversations and teachings.

First of all, in Buddhist ethics its intellectual character is striking. Here are some typical examples from the Sutta-Ni-pata:

"Great learning and knowledge, right understanding of the law, good words - this is the greatest bliss"

"Truth is the sweetest in this world and this life will be called the best that lives in understanding."

Its second property, the negative character of most of its commandments, is associated with the intellectual nature of Buddhist ethics. Buddhism is much more willing to say what must be avoided, what it says what must be done. Its main commandments are: do not kill, do not steal, do not commit adultery, do not lie, do not drink like that.

It could not have been otherwise in Buddhism: preaching renunciation, rejection of the world, Buddhism preached abstinence from life in general, from spiritual movements, even if it was of an ethical order.

1. Love in Buddhism

“Do not strive for the joys of the base, nor the heavenly ones”, be unstable, do not be surprised at anything, admire nothing, strive for nothing, regret nothing. The feeling of love for personalities is perfection-non-incompatible with Buddhism; to the individual; for him to function as deeply indifferent: is it worth the brother or the completely alien whom he sees for the first time - because all attachment is pain, because personality is an illusion.

But this does not exclude the possibility of the most intense love for everything in general, for the common suffering world of chaos, because such love does not bring suffering.

There is one place in which this world love is expressed with extraordinary power.

"May all beings be happy, give all of them joy and pleasure!"

1. The negative nature of his commandments.

We will visually depict Buddhist ethics if we note two-character features

A monk, first of all, understands the ugliness, burden and deception of this world. He looks at the world as “emptiness”, decay and destruction. He has conquered in himself all impulses for peace and all-pervasiveness. He is not angry, he endures insults, misfortunes, failures of indifference and murmuring. He is not attached to the comforts of life and does not seek abundant mercy, clothing and shelter.

The saint has renounced family attachments, he is not attracted to a female body, molded from meat, filled with blood, bile, and mucus.

Even seeing the beautiful daughters of Mara, I did not feel impure impulses in myself, - said the Buddha, - what is there in your daughter's body, filled with water and secretions?

The saint has uprooted all his desires, he is indifferent to the present, as indifferent to the past and the future, and this gives him special positive virtues - freedom, wisdom and power.

He is free from all attachments, he even makes friends with him, he is alone, not connected with anything, independent of anything, neither from people, nor from the weather, nor from happiness, nor from misfortune. Therefore, there is no fear in him, and Mara the Tempting himself is terrible to him.

The saint has wisdom; this is not the wisdom of this world. He is not like people who “now grab at science, throw it for another teaching, like monkeys throw themselves from one bitch to another”; light, deep and silent wisdom, like a boundless, silent sea; The mountainous hands will run noisily, but the waters in the depths of the seas are eternally silent.

And together with freedom, power and wisdom, the saint acquires goodwill for all living things. He does not harm man, he does not harm animals, birds, insects; He does not even disturb the slightest plant if this does not seem to be a special need; his love is akin to self-sacrifice. He must be ready to give all his own, if it is required of him, to give even himself, as the Buddha did, who in one of his transformations, being a hare, fed his legs with hunger.

It goes without saying that the ultimate ideal for a buddhist is the Buddha himself. Therefore, his image is an example for imitation, and his end, Nirvana, is the goal of the aspirations of every monk. The people of this goal follow a hard and long path.

Mercy and activities for the benefit are needed by people only in the first stages of the path. For those approaching the end, only concentration of consciousness, self-absorption is needed: “When thunder does not thunder on and rain streams fill all the airways, then the monks in the mountain cave indulge in self-deepening, and there is no such thing as a sublime joy until he reaches the final tranquility - Nirvana”.

1. Nirvana

What is Nirvana? Is it pure annihilation or some kind of special kind of existence?

Nirvana means the extinction and most of the texts draw, as non-being, or describe in negative terms, as the nullification of passions, the destruction of desires, movements, even knowledge. But does this mean that Nirvana is non-being? As we know, Buddha stubbornly avoided answering questions about posthumous existence, and his disciples, when they were asked about such things, invariably answered that “The Exalted One did not discover this.” This already hints at the best solution, which is different from resolving the question in negative sense.

To one of these questions (about the posthumous existence of the Buddha) nun Khema replied:

“The Essence of the Perfect cannot be defined in the categories of this world. It is deep and bottomless, like the great ocean. It is not possible to say that the Perfect One exists after death, but it is also impossible to say that he does not exist. "

Another dialogue vigorously refutes Yamaki's heretical denigration "that a monk, freed from sins when his body disintegrates, is subject to destruction, that he does not exist after death"

At the third meeting of Buddhists, the issue of Nirvana was resolved in the sense that Nirvana is incomprehensible to those who have not attained it.

Thus, Nirvana is a posthumous state, it is defined as something that is not transcendental, as something that we cannot speak about with our concepts and words, something that is incomprehensible, about which we can’t even say our human theologian - “it exists”.

1. Buddhist community

Having considered the Buddha and Damma (the personality of the founder and the Law), wepe-raidemp to the third element of Buddhism, to the Samga-community.

Although in the Buddhist symbol of faith it is said to be a generalization, as something unified, but with its own internal nonunity, it does not represent something as a whole in its organization.

Buddhist monks are grouped into communities that are not related to one another and do not have a common leader; such was only the Law. Acceptance into the community was very simple. In the presence of ten monks, the initiate was asked several questions and after satisfactory answers were given to them. Only known criminals and incompetent persons are not accepted. Getting out of the community is also easy.

17. The way of life of monks.

The monk's clothes are yellow and very simple. He usually has a razor, a needle, a bowl, a sieve and a bead with him. When gathering mercy, he does not dare to accept money, but he should not beg for food, but only wait silently.

The original rule was to forbid a monk to live in homes, but this rule quickly ceased to be enforced.

The monks did not have any work, except for the daily collection of alms of spiritual exercises. Spiritual exercises included studying science and writing books. Two times a month, meetings were held in the community, which were called repentance, where monks were monks in their sins and discussed the affairs of the community.

18. The embryos of the cult.

Initially, Buddhism did not have any service to the gods and generally a cult, but after the death of the Buddha, a culture began to form.

Following the example of other sects, Buddhism created holidays, pilgrimages to holy places, to the place of the Buddha's homeland, his first sermon, his death. The remains of the teacher were also subject to reading. During its further dissemination, Buddhism assimilated all the elements of an ordinary cult, prayers, images, temples, priests.

19. The spread of Buddhism.

Currently, Buddhism exists in Naples, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Tibet, China, Japan, and the islands of Java and Sumatra.

In all these countries, Buddhism more or less deviated from its primitive, pure form and even adopted completely alien elements. For example, in Tibet (where Buddhism is called Lamoism), the population of the Mongolian tribe is very weakly cultured and completely unique, in its own way understood the reworking.

In Vlamoism, there is an extensive hierarchy of saints with divine dignity. Lamoism has received a strong development of the cult. Travelers to Yahassu speak of a huge number of monasteries, church bells, images, relics, fasts, worship, a variety of rows.

In China, Buddhism also adopted a richly developed cult, just like in Japan.

In such a perverted form, adapted to the understanding of low-cultural masses, Buddhism has many followers and by their number (over 300 million) is considered the first religion in the world.

In our time, attempts have been made to revive Buddhism in the cultural classes of European society. These attempts and partial success, and under the name of non-Buddhism, and now there is a religious-philosophical trend, which has its followers both on the continent, and in England, and in America.

This trend cannot have a nominal value. Buddhism has outlived all its main principles, and mankind, in the person of its leaders and prophets, sees farther than Buddhism looked.

20. Evaluation of Buddhism. Positive and negative sides.

The development and proof of this idea was the evaluation of the ideas of Buddhism, which we will now work out.

Buddhism belongs to the number of the few universal, world religions that are closely related to the language and national culture, and do not go beyond this culture.

Buddhism, as we can see, spread throughout Asia and conquered the most diverse tribes of the wild Siberian peoples of the pre-cultural tribes of India. While the ideas of national religions were losing all power, the ideas of Buddhism developed and produced an energetic movement around themselves. This resilience of the Universe-Lizmbuddhism is explained by its special positive properties.

Buddhism, first of all, is a religion that has put forward on the first plane the subject of religion, man, and has adopted a sharply ethical character. Buddhism is not interested in the sphere of the divine, all its attention is directed to the position of man, it is occupied with the principles of norms of behavior. Thanks to this specialty of his attention, he achieves, for the first time in world history, tremendous results. Ethics among Buddhists is subtle and deeply developed.

The Buddha's teaching is about pity, mercy, love for every creature. It is warmed with feelings so alive and genuine that it can inspire and excite even now.

Eternal value in Buddhism was the condemnation of selfishness, passions that destroy personality.

The second positive moment of Buddhism is its soteriology, the doctrine of salvation. Imisteria was taught about it. Nobuddhism goes far. He does not want the kind of salvation that the mystics offered. He does not believe in the natural world in order to call to merge with it, but the perspective of endless dying and resurrection terrifies him.

He seeks liberation from the nature of iduric infinity, he longs for the end, completion, fulfillment.

The third element that must be noted in Buddhism, later, only in Christianity, has developed in the form of a church. This is the idea of ​​being saved together, that is, the formation of a community.

In addition to the positive aspects, Buddhism has negative aspects: its limited empirical and philosophical.

The empirical limitation of Buddhism lies in the fact that it brings the preaching of salvation to not everyone, “This teaching is for the intelligent, not for the stupid.” By its design, with its complex teaching about the causes of suffering, Buddhism required a large intellectual-lectual level for its assimilation.

So Buddhism is not salvation for everyone. People who are not learned, simple, busy with physical labor and do not have time for reflection, and finally, women, remain outside the sphere of action of the Buddha's sermon. But this property of Buddhism is accidental and it stands in connection with another limitation of Buddhism, which we will now talk about.

King Milinda, in a conversation with the disciple of the Buddha, the great saint Naga-sena, said to him:

If, Honorable Nagasena, the subject is not, then who gives you all that you need: dress, food, shelter and medicine for the sick? Who uses all of these things? Who is walking the path of holiness? Who reaches Nirvana? Who Committing the Five Deadly Sins?

After all, this means there is no good, no deeds, there are no good or evil deeds, and even if someone had killed the venerable Naga-sena, then he would not have committed a sin? This very poisonous question contains a terrifying, destructive criticism that Buddhism has nothing to answer. Buddhism, in its denial of the world, has gone too far, further than its premises allowed. hung, so to speak, in emptiness, stopped in an unstable equilibrium, at the edge, having therefore concluded for itself the contradictions that are inevitable in any absolute negation.

21. Conversion to Christianity

Thus, positive points of support were inevitably found in Buddhism in the concept of Nirvana, but Buddha, as we have seen, stubbornly deviated from the analysis of these concepts. Their theoretical disclosure and practical life took place five centuries later, in Christianity.

I will end this narration with a poem Tolstoy, who visually depicts that revolution in the perception of the world, in the outlook and understanding of world history, which Christianity brought with it, filling the dullness and dark places that shone so painfully in Buddhism:

And the brighter my dark gaze

I have lost sight of the invisible world

Hears the ear for this time,

That for others is elusive.

I descended from the mountain height,

Penetrate all its rays

Ina the worryingdoll

Vzirayanovy eyes.

I hear a conversation.

The silent omnipresent

Like the heart of the mountain of stone.

It beats with love in darkened thighs;

In love with the firm blue

Slow clouds swirl

Inad tree spindle

In love with the leaves, sleep is alive

A stream will rise up singing.

And with a knowing heart I understood

What is it that is born of the Word,

Ray of love,

To whom he longs to return again

Every stream of life

Love obedient to the law

Strives by the power of being

Unstoppable God Lona

Sound is everywhere, and light is everywhere,

All the worlds have one beginning,

Nothing in nature,

To not breathe with love.

22 The Importance of World Religions

World religions are of great importance today. The following data speak about the role of world religions:

1 - The vast majority of people living on Earth are adherents of one of the existing world religions.

2– In many countries of the world, religious associations are separated from the states. However, the influence of religion on the political life of modern society remains significant. A number of states recognize one of the religions as state and compulsory.

3 - Religion, as a form of culture, is one of the most important sources of moral values ​​and norms, regulates the daily life of people, keeps the principles of universal human morality.

4 - Unfortunately, religious contradictions continue to be the source and breeding ground of bloody conflicts, terrorism, a force of separation and confrontation. Religious fanatism is destructive, it opposes culture, universal human, spiritual values, and human interests.

Bibliography

L.N.Bogolyubov

A.V.Klimenko

Sutta-Nipata "Buddhist Canonical Book"

Gerasimova "The Path to Truth"

Oldenberg "Buddha, his life, teaching, community"

Rhys-Davids "Buddhism"

Bart "Religions of India"

A. Chrysanthus "Religions of the Ancient World"

A. Yelchanikov "History of Religion"

ESSAY

social science

topic: "Buddhism"

Disciple's job

11class " B ”

GOUSOSH number 9

Natalia Gordienko

The content of the article

BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM. Buddhism is a religion founded by Gautam Buddha (6th century BC). All Buddhists revere the Buddha as the founder of the spiritual tradition that bears his name. In almost all directions of Buddhism there are monastic orders, whose members act as teachers and clergy for the laity. However, minus these similarities, the numerous branches of modern Buddhism demonstrate a variety of both beliefs and religious practices. In its classical form (Theravada, "school of elders," or Hinayana, "small chariot") Buddhism is mainly philosophy and ethics. The goal of believers is to achieve nirvana, a blissful state of insight and liberation from the shackles of one's self, the world and an endless circle of births, deaths and new births in the chain of new lives. The state of spiritual perfection is achieved through humility, generosity, mercy, abstinence from violence and self-control. For the direction of Buddhism, known as the Mahayana ("great chariot"), is characterized by the veneration of the pantheon of divine Buddhas and future Buddhas. In other forms of Buddhism, the concept of an entire hierarchy of demons is common. Some varieties of Mahayana Buddhism promise a true paradise for believers. A number of areas emphasize faith rather than works. There is a type of Buddhism that seeks to lead the adept to a paradoxical, intuitive, non-rational comprehension of "true reality."

In India, Buddhism flourished until about 500 AD. Then it gradually fell into decay, was absorbed by Hinduism and by the 11th century. almost completely disappeared. By that time, Buddhism had spread and gained influence in other countries of Central and East Asia, where it remains viable to this day. Buddhism today exists in two main forms. Hinayana is widespread in Sri Lanka and in the countries of Southeast Asia - in Myanmar (formerly Burma), Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. Mahayana is predominant in China, including Tibet, Vietnam, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. A significant number of Buddhists live in the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, as well as in Sikkim in northern India. Far fewer Buddhists (less than 1%) live in India itself, Pakistan, the Philippines and Indonesia. Outside of Asia, several thousand Buddhists live in the United States (600,000), South America (160,000) and Europe (20,000). Data on the total number of Buddhists in the world (from 200 million to 500 million) differ depending on the methodology and criteria for counting. In many countries, Buddhism has mixed with elements of other Eastern religions such as Shinto or Taoism.

GAUTAM BUDDHA (6-5 centuries BC)

The life of a buddha

The founder of Buddhism is Buddha ("The Enlightened One"). At birth, Buddha received the name Siddhartha, and the name of his clan or family - Gautama. The biography of Siddhartha Gautama is known only in the presentation of his followers. These traditional accounts, originally transmitted orally, were not written down until several centuries after his death. The most famous legends about the life of Buddha are included in the collection Jataka, compiled around the 2nd century. BC. in the Pali language (one of the most ancient Middle Indian languages).

Siddhartha was born in Kapilavastu, in the southern part of what is now Nepal, around the 6th century. BC. His father Shuddhodhana, the head of the noble Shakya clan, belonged to the warrior caste. According to legend, at the birth of a child, his parents were predicted that he would become either a great Ruler or a Teacher of the Universe. The father, who firmly decided that the son should be his heir, took all measures to ensure that the son did not see any signs or sufferings of the world. As a result, Siddhartha spent his youthful years in luxury, as befits a rich young man. He married Yashodhara's cousin, conquering her in a competition of agility and strength (swayamvara), in which he put all the other participants to shame. A contemplative man, he soon grew tired of an idle life and turned to religion. At the age of 29, despite the efforts of his father, he still saw four signs that were to determine his fate. For the first time in his life, he saw old age (a decrepit old man), then illness (a person worn out by illness), death (a dead body) and true serenity (a wandering mendicant monk). In reality, the people Siddhartha saw were gods who assumed this form in order to help Siddhartha become a Buddha. Siddhartha was at first very saddened, but soon realized that the first three signs indicated the constant presence of suffering in the world. Suffering seemed to him all the more terrible because, according to the beliefs of that time, a person after death was doomed to all new births. Therefore, there was no end to suffering, it was eternal. In the fourth sign, in the serene inner joy of a mendicant monk, Siddhartha saw his future destiny.

Even the happy news of the birth of his son did not make him happy, and one night he left the palace and rode away on his faithful horse Kanthaka. Siddhartha took off his expensive clothes, changed into a monk's dress, and soon settled as a hermit in the forest. Then he joined the five ascetics in the hope that mortification of the flesh would lead him to insight and peace. After six years of the strictest austerity, never reaching his goal, Siddhartha parted with the ascetics and began to lead a more moderate lifestyle.

One day Siddhartha Gautama, who was already thirty-five years old, sat under a large bo tree (a kind of fig tree) near the town of Gaia in eastern India and made a vow that he would not budge until he solved the riddle of suffering. For forty-nine days he sat under a tree. Friendly gods and spirits fled from him when the tempter Mara, the Buddhist devil, approached. Day after day Siddhartha resisted various temptations. Mara summoned his demons and unleashed a tornado, flood and earthquake on the meditating Gautama. He told his daughters - Desire, Pleasure and Passion - to seduce Gautama with erotic dances. When Mara demanded that Siddhartha present evidence of his kindness and mercy, Gautama touched the ground with his hand, and the earth said, "I am his witness."

In the end, Mara and his demons fled, and on the morning of the 49th day, Siddhartha Gautama learned the truth, solved the riddle of suffering and understood what a person must do to overcome it. Fully enlightened, he has reached the ultimate detachment from the world (nirvana), which means the end of suffering.

He spent another 49 days in meditation under a tree, and then went to the Deer Park near Benares, where he found five ascetics with whom he lived in the forest. It was to them that Buddha read his first sermon. Soon the Buddha acquired many followers, the most beloved of whom was his cousin Ananda, and organized a community (sangha), in fact, a monastic order (bhikkhus - "beggars"). The Buddha instructed the dedicated followers in liberation from suffering and the attainment of nirvana, and the laity in the moral way of life. The Buddha traveled extensively, returning home for a short time to convert his own family and courtiers. Over time, they began to call him Bhagavan ("Lord"), Tathagatha ("He came thus" or "So departed") and Shakyamuni ("Sage from the Sakya clan").

There is a legend that Devadatta, a cousin of the Buddha, planning to kill the Buddha out of jealousy, released a mad elephant onto the path along which he had to pass. The Buddha meekly stopped the elephant, which fell to his knees in front of him. In the 80th year of his life, Buddha did not give up pork, which was treated to him by the layman Chanda the blacksmith, and soon died.

Teachings

Pre-Buddhist teachings

The era in which Buddha lived was a time of great religious fermentation. By the 6th century. BC. the polytheistic veneration of the deified forces of nature, inherited from the era of the Aryan conquest of India (1500–800 BC), took shape in the rites of sacrifice performed by the brahmana priests. The cult was based on two collections of sacred literature, compiled by the priests: Veda, collections of ancient hymns, chants and liturgical texts, and Brahmanas, collections of instructions for the performance of rituals. Later, belief in reincarnation, samsara and karma was added to the ideas contained in the hymns and interpretations.

Among the followers of the Vedic religion were the brahmana priests, who believed that since the gods and all other beings are manifestations of the one supreme reality (Brahman), then only union with this reality can bring liberation. Their reflections are reflected in the later Vedic literature ( Upanishads, 7-6 centuries. BC). Other teachers, rejecting the authority of the Vedas, suggested other ways and methods. Some (ajivakas and Jains) emphasized austerity and mortification of the flesh, others insisted on the adoption of a special doctrine, the adherence to which was to ensure spiritual liberation.

Buddha's teachings

The teachings of the Buddha, distinguished by their depth and high morality, were a protest against Vedic formalism. Rejecting the authority of both the Vedas and the brahmana priesthood, the Buddha proclaimed a new path of liberation. Its essence is stated in its sermon Turning the Wheel of Doctrine(Dhammachakkhappavattana). This is the "middle way" between the extremes of ascetic selflessness (which seemed to him meaningless) and the gratification of sensual desires (equally useless). Essentially, this path is to understand the “four noble truths” and live according to them.

I. The Noble Truth About Suffering. Suffering is inherent in life itself, it consists in birth, old age, illness and death, in connection with the unpleasant, in separation from the pleasant; in failure to achieve the desired, in short, in everything that is associated with existence.

II. The noble truth about the cause of suffering. The cause of suffering is longing desire, which leads to a new birth and is accompanied by joy and delight, exultation from the pleasures sought here and there. It is the lust for lust, the lust for existence and non-existence.

III. The noble truth about ending suffering. The cessation of suffering is the cessation of desires through the rejection of them, the gradual release from their power.

IV. The noble truth about the path leading to the end of suffering. The path to the end of suffering is the eightfold path of rightness, namely the right look, the right thought, the right speech, the right action, the right way of life, the right efforts, the right mindset, the right concentration. Progress along this path leads to the disappearance of desires and liberation from suffering.

The Buddha's teaching differs from the Vedic tradition, which relies on the rituals of sacrifices to the gods of nature. Here the fulcrum is no longer dependence on the actions of the priests, but internal liberation through the correct way of thinking, correct behavior and spiritual discipline. The teachings of the Buddha are also opposed to the brahmanism of the Upanishads. The authors of the Upanishads, seers, renounced the belief in material sacrifice. Nevertheless, they retained the idea of ​​"I" (Atman) as an unchanging, eternal essence. They saw the path to liberation from the dominion of ignorance and rebirth in the merging of all finite “I” in the universal “I” (Atman, which is Brahman). Gautama, on the other hand, was deeply concerned with the practical problem of human liberation through moral and spiritual cleansing and opposed the idea of ​​the unchanging essence of "I". In this sense, he proclaimed "Not-I" (An-Atman). What is commonly called "I" is a collection of constantly changing physical and mental components. Everything is in progress, and therefore is able to improve oneself through the right thoughts and the right actions. Every action has consequences. Recognizing this "law of karma", the changeable "I" can, making the right effort, to get away from the impulses to bad actions and from retribution for other actions in the form of suffering and a continuous cycle of birth and death. For a follower who has attained perfection (arahata), the result of his passions will be nirvana, a state of serene insight, dispassion and wisdom, deliverance from further birth and the sorrow of existence.

THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM IN INDIA

From Gautama to Ashoka

According to legend, immediately after the death of Gautama, about 500 of his followers gathered in Rajagriha to present the teachings in the form in which they remembered it. The doctrine and rules of conduct were formed, which guided the monastic community (sangha). Subsequently, this direction was called Theravada ("school of elders"). At the "second council" in Vaishali, community leaders declared unlawful indulgences in ten rules that were practiced by local monks. This is how the first split took place. Vaishali monks (according to Mahavamsa, or Great Chronicle of Ceylon, there were 10 thousand of them) left the old order and established their own sect, calling themselves Mahasanghikas (members of the Great Order). As the number of Buddhists grew and Buddhism spread, more and more schisms arose. By the time of Ashoka (3rd century BC), there were already 18 different "schools of teachers". The most important were the original Orthodox Theravada; Sarvastivada, which at first only slightly diverged from Theravada in doctrinal terms; mahasanghika. In the end, a territorial division took place between them, so to speak. The Theravada school moved to South India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Sarvastivada first gained popularity in Mathura in northern India, but then spread northwestward up to Gandhara. The Mahasanghikas were at first active in Magadha, and later settled in the south of India, retaining only some influence in the north.

The most important difference between the Sarvastivada school is the doctrine of the simultaneous existence of the past, present and future. This also explains its name: sarvam-asti - "everything is there." All three aforementioned schools remain orthodox in nature, but the Sarvastivadins and Mahasanghikas, who used Sanskrit rather than Pali, tended to interpret more freely the meaning of the Buddha's sayings. As for the Theravadins, they strove to preserve the ancient dogmas intact.

Ashoka (3rd century BC)

The spread of Buddhism received a strong new impetus when the third king from the ancient Indian Mauryan dynasty (4th – 2nd centuries BC) became a secular follower of this religion. In one of his rock edicts (XIII), Ashoka told about repentance for the bloodshed and suffering that he inflicted on people in the war of conquest in Kalinga, and about his decision to follow the path of moral conquest (dharma). This meant that he intended to rule according to the principle of righteousness, instilling this righteousness both in his own kingdom and in other countries.

Ashoka honored ascetics, respecting their preaching of non-violence and humane ethical principles, and demanded that his officials support noble deeds associated with compassion, generosity, truthfulness, purity, meekness and kindness. He himself strove to be an example, caring for the welfare and happiness of his subjects, be they Hindus, Ajiviks, Jains or Buddhists. Edicts, which he ordered to be carved on rocks or stone pillars in different parts of the country, perpetuated the principles of his government.

Great Chronicle of Ceylon credits Ashoka with convening a "third council" in Pataliputra, where, in addition to clarifying the "true teaching," measures were taken to send Buddhist missionaries out of the kingdom.

From Ashoka to Kanishka

After Ashoka, the Mauryan dynasty quickly faded away. By the beginning of 2 BC. it was replaced by the Shung dynasty, which is more disposed towards brahmanas than towards Buddhists. The emergence of the Bactrian Greeks, Scythians and Parthians in the northwest of India threw a new challenge to Buddhist teachers. This situation is reflected in a dialogue written in Pali between the Greco-Bactrian king Menander (Milinda) and the Buddhist sage Nagasena ( Milinda's Questions, Milindapanha, 2 BC). Later, in 1 AD, the entire region from Afghanistan to Punjab came under the rule of the Central Asian Kushan tribe. According to the Sarvastivadin tradition, during the reign of King Kanishka (78–101 AD), another "council" was held in Jalandar. The work of the Buddhist scholars who hosted his work resulted in extensive commentaries in Sanskrit.

Mahayana and Hinayana

Meanwhile, the formation of two interpretations of Buddhism took place. Some of the sarvastivadins adhered to the orthodox tradition of "elders" (Skt. "Sthaviravada"). There were also liberals who resembled the Mahasanghiks. Over time, the two groups entered into open disagreements. The liberals considered the teachings of the sthaviravadins to be primitive and incomplete. They considered the traditional way of seeking nirvana less successful, calling it the "small vehicle" of salvation (Hinayana), while their own teaching, they called the "great vehicle" (Mahayana), carrying the adept into wider and deeper dimensions of truth.

In an effort to strengthen and make their position invulnerable, the Hinayanists of the Sarvastivadins assembled a corpus of treatises ( Abhidharma, OK. 350 - 100 BC), based on early texts (sutras) and monastic regulations (vinaya). For their part, the Mahayanists prepared treatises (1-3 AD) outlining new interpretations of the doctrine, opposing the Hinayana as, from their point of view, a primitive interpretation. Despite the controversy, all monks followed the same rules of discipline, and often Hinayanists and Mahayanists lived in the same or adjacent monasteries.

It should be noted that the terms "Hinayana" and "Mahayana" arose from the polemical statements of the Mahayanists, who sought to separate their new interpretations from the old ones retained by the conservative sarvastivadins. Both groups belonged to northern Buddhists who used Sanskrit. The Theravadins, who used the Pali and went to the south of India and to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), did not take part in this dispute. Treasured by their texts, they saw themselves as the keepers of the truth transmitted to them through the "elders" (Pali - "thera") from the Buddha himself.

The decline of Buddhism in India

As a separate religion, attracting new followers, consolidating its influence and creating new literature, Buddhism flourished in India until about 500 AD. He was supported by the rulers, magnificent temples and monasteries were erected in the country, the great Mahayana teachers appeared: Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu. Then there was a recession that lasted for several centuries, and after the 12th century, when power passed to the Muslims in India, Buddhism in this country practically disappeared. Various factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism. In some regions, a turbulent political situation has developed, in others, Buddhism has lost the patronage of the authorities, and in some places it has encountered opposition from hostile rulers. Internal factors were more important than external factors. After the formation of the Mahayana, the creative impulse of Buddhism weakened. Buddhist communities have always lived in the neighborhood with other religious cults and practices of religious life - Vedic ritualism, Brahmanism, Jain asceticism and worship of various Hindu gods. Having never shown intolerance towards other religions, Buddhism could not resist their influence. Already Chinese pilgrims visiting India in 7 AD noted signs of decay. Since the 11th century. both Hinduism and Buddhism began to experience the influence of Tantrism, the name of which comes from the sacred books of tantras (manuals). Tantrism is a system of beliefs and rituals that uses magic spells, mystical syllables, diagrams and symbolic gestures to achieve a sense of mystical unity with reality. In tantric rituals, the image of God in intercourse with his wife was an expression of the realization of this religious ideal. In Hinduism, partners (shakti) were considered the spouses of the gods, in late Mahayanism - the spouses of Buddhas and boddhisattvas.

Sublime elements of Buddhist philosophy fell into the hands of former Hindu opponents, Buddha himself came to be considered the incarnation (avatar) of Vishnu, one of the Hindu gods.

THERAVADA BUDDHISM

Basic doctrines, religious practices, sacred texts

The earliest Buddhist teachings are best preserved in Pali texts. The texts form a complete canon and give the most complete understanding of the Theravada doctrine. Pali is related to Sanskrit, and a number of Pali and Sanskrit terms are very similar. For example, dhamma in Pali is the same as dharma in Sanskrit, kamma in Pali is the same as karma in Sanskrit, nibbana is Sanskrit nirvana. The Theravadins believe that the teaching codified in this corpus points to the truth or law (dhamma) of the Universe itself, and the adept must live by this law in order to achieve the highest freedom and peace. In general terms, the Theravada belief system is as follows.

The universe as we know it is in constant flux. Existence, including the life of the individual, is impermanent (anicca). Everything arises and disappears. Contrary to popular belief, there is no permanent, unchanging "I" (Atta) in a person, reborn, passing from one incarnation to another. In fact, a person is a conditional unity of five groups of changeable physical and mental components: body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness, behind which there is no immutable and constant essence. Everything is transient and impermanent, is in tense restlessness (dukkha, "suffering") and has no substance (anatta). In this stream of psychophysical events, everything happens in accordance with universal causality (kamma). Any event is a consequence of a cause or a complex of causes, and then becomes the cause of its own consequences. Thus, each person reaps what he sowed. However, the most important thing is the recognition of the existence of a moral principle, according to which good deeds lead to good results, and bad deeds lead to bad results. Moving along the path of righteousness ("the eightfold path") to the highest liberation in nibbana (nirvana) can lead to deliverance from suffering.

The Eightfold Path consists in following the following principles. (1) The correct view is the understanding of the "four noble truths", i.e. suffering, its causes, its cessation and the path leading to the cessation of suffering. (2) Right thought is deliverance from lust, evil will, cruelty, and unrighteousness. (3) Correct speech - avoiding lies, spreading gossip, rudeness and idle talk. (4) The correct action is to abstain from murder, theft, and sexual immorality. (5) The correct way of life is the choice of those activities that do not harm anything living. (6) Right diligence - avoiding and overcoming bad tendencies, nurturing and strengthening good and healthy tendencies. (7) Correct attention is the observation of the state of the body, sensations, mind and objects on which the mind focuses in order to understand and control them. (8) Right Concentration - Concentrating the mind in meditation to induce the well-known ecstatic states of consciousness that lead to insights.

Observations of how life passes through the circle of repeated births led to the development of a formula of causality, the "law of dependence of causes" (Pali, "patichchasamuppada"; Skt. "Pratyasamutpada"). This is a chain of 12 causal factors that are supposedly at work in every person, with each of the factors being associated with the next factor. The factors are listed in the following order: ignorance, voluntary action, consciousness, mind and body, feelings, impressions, sensations, desires, attachment, becoming, rebirth ”,“ old age and death ”. These factors create suffering. The cessation of suffering depends in the same order on the cessation of the action of these factors.

The ultimate goal is the disappearance of all desires and self-serving aspirations in Nibbana. The Pali word “nibbana” (Skt. “Nirvana”) literally means “fading out” of affects (by analogy with the fading out of a fire after burning out the fuel). This does not mean "nothing" or "annihilation"; rather, it is a transcendental state of freedom beyond "birth and death", not conveyed in terms of existence or non-existence in their usual sense.

According to the Theravada teachings, a person is responsible for his own salvation and is not dependent in this on the will of higher powers (gods). The gods are not directly denied existence, but it is believed that they are subject to the constant process of rebirth according to the law of karma, just like people. The help of the gods is not necessary to advance on the path to Nibbana, so theology was not developed in Theravada. The main objects of worship are called the "three refuges", and every faithful follower of the Path pins their hopes on them: (1) Buddha - not as a god, but as a teacher and example; (2) dhamma - the truth taught by Buddha; (3) sangha - a fellowship of followers established by the Buddha.

Literature on Theravada doctrine consists primarily of the Pali Canon texts, which are grouped into three collections called Three baskets(Tripitaka): (1) Discipline basket (Vinaya Pitaka) contains the statutes and rules of conduct for monks and nuns, narratives about the life and teachings of Buddha, the history of the monastic order; (2) Basket of instructions (Sutta pitaka) contains an exposition of the sermons of the Buddha. They also tell about the circumstances under which he delivered his sermons, sometimes setting out his own experience of seeking and gaining enlightenment, invariably taking into account the capabilities of the audience. This collection of texts is of particular importance for the study of early doctrine; (3) The basket of the highest doctrine (Abhidhamma pitaka) is a systematic classification of terms and ideas from the first two collections. Treatises, compiled much later than the statutes and sutras, are devoted to the problems of psychology and logic. In general, the canon represents the tradition in its development over several centuries.

THE SPREAD OF THERAVADA BUDDHISM

The "School of Elders" flourished in those areas where Buddha preached the teachings, on the territory of the ancient states of Koshal and Magadha (modern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar). Subsequently, she gradually ceded her position to the sarvastivadins, whose influence was growing.

However, by that time, missionaries were successfully preaching the Theravada teachings in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), where they first heard about it from the son of Ashoka, Prince Mahinda (246 BC). In Sri Lanka, the tradition was scrupulously guarded and passed on with minor modifications. At the beginning of the 1st century. BC. oral traditions were recorded in Pali. The Pali texts, divided into the three named collections, have become an orthodox canon, which has since been revered in Sri Lanka and throughout Southeast Asia. In the south of Myanmar (Burma), Theravada may have become known as early as the 1st century AD. The teaching did not spread throughout Myanmar until the 11th century, when the rulers, together with missionary monks, spread it in the north and throughout the country. In Thailand, the first Thai rulers (starting from the 13th century), adoring the Buddhist culture of Myanmar, sent for teachers to Sri Lanka in order to transfer it to their country. Cambodia, in turn, came under the influence of Theravada from Thailand, and later was directly associated with Buddhist centers in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Laos, under the influence of Cambodia, became a predominantly Theravada country in the 14th and 15th centuries. Indonesia, associated since ancient times with India, Hinduism and Buddhism - both Theravada and Mahayana - was introduced by Indian colonists and merchants. However, starting from the 15th century. Muslim merchants gradually began to penetrate these colonies, and Islam prevailed in Malaya, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. Only on the island of Bali has a religion survived, which is a form of Buddhism with elements of Hinduism.

Theravada in the 20th century

Southeast Asian Buddhism retains the forms in which it once existed in India. Monks in yellow robes are people who have retired from the world and dedicated themselves to the spiritual path. Monasteries adhere to the charter to this day Discipline baskets... The laity treat monasticism with respect, turn to monks for instructions, and make alms offerings.

Monk life

One who enters the order must undergo a public ceremony, the main part of which is the oath of allegiance to the "three refuges": "I seek refuge in the Buddha," "I seek refuge in the dhamma," "I seek refuge in the sangha." Each vow is repeated three times. In the initiation rite, he leaves the world and becomes a novice in a monastery. After completing a period of novice, he takes ordination as a monk (bhikkhu). After 10 years, the monk becomes an elder (thera), and after 20 years - a great elder (mahathera). In Sri Lanka, an ordained monk must spend his entire life in the sangha. In other Theravada countries, one may spend several months or years in the order and then return to mundane life. In Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia, monastic life for several weeks or months is part of the religious upbringing of every Buddhist youth.

A monk should refrain from alcohol and tobacco, refrain from eating from noon until the next morning, and observe purity in thoughts and deeds. The day begins with the monks going out to beg (to provide the laity with the opportunity to show the virtue of generosity and raise funds for their food). Once every two weeks patimokkha (227 rules of discipline) is recited, after which the monks must confess their sins and receive a term of penance. For great sins (violation of chastity, theft, murder, deception in spiritual matters), a monk is punished by expulsion from the order. Important matters include studying and reciting sacred texts; meditation is considered essential to control, purify, and elevate the mind.

Two types of meditation are recognized: one leads to serenity (samatha), the other leads to insight (vipassana). For pedagogical purposes, they are divided into 40 exercises for developing serenity and 3 exercises for developing insight. A classic work on meditation techniques - The path of purification (Visuddhi Magga) - was written by Buddhaghosha (5th century).

Although monks are instructed to maintain a strict lifestyle in monasteries, they are not isolated from contact with lay people. As a rule, each village has at least one monastery, which is supposed to have a spiritual influence on the inhabitants. Monks provide general religious education, perform rituals and ceremonies, prepare young men entering the sangha for religious education in a monastery, perform rituals for the dead, read at funerals Three jewels (Triratna) and Five Vows (Panchasila), sing hymns about the transience of everything that is made up of parts, console relatives.

The life of the laity

Theravada laymen practice only the ethical part of the path of discipline. Where appropriate, they also read Three jewels and respect Five Vows: a ban on the killing of a living, on theft, on illegal sex, on lying, on the use of alcohol and drugs. On special occasions, lay people refrain from eating in the afternoon, do not listen to music, do not use flower garlands and perfumes, or too soft seats and beds. From the canon book Sigolavada Sutta they receive instructions on good relations between parents and children, students and teachers, husband and wife, friends and acquaintances, servants and masters, lay people and members of the sangha. Especially zealous laymen set up small altars in their homes. Everyone visits temples in order to honor Buddha, they are going to listen to the sermons of learned monks about the intricacies of the doctrine and, if possible, make pilgrimages to sacred places for Buddhists. The most famous among them are Buddhagaya in India, where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment; Temple of the Tooth in Kandy (Sri Lanka), Shwe Dagon Pagoda in Rangoon (modern Yangon, Myanmar) and the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok (Thailand).

Theravada temples

Throughout Southeast Asia, there are statues in temples and shrines depicting the historic Buddha - standing, seated, or reclining. The most common images of Buddha are either sitting in a meditation posture or with raised arms in a teaching posture. The reclining posture symbolizes his transition to nibbana. Buddha images are not worshiped as idols - they are honored as reminders of the life and virtues of a great teacher. What is believed to be the remains of his body is also revered. According to legend, after being burned, they were distributed to several groups of believers. It is believed that they are incorruptible, and now they are preserved in sanctuaries - stupas, dagobas or pagodas in the countries of the Theravada distribution. Perhaps most notable is the "sacred tooth" located in the temple in Kandy, where services are performed daily.

Theravada activities in the 20th century

Theravada Buddhists intensified their activities after the Second World War. Associations for the study of doctrine are being created for the laity, and public lectures by monks are organized. International conferences of Buddhists are held; in Myanmar, where the tradition of calling cathedrals for reading and clarification is preserved Tripitaki In Pali, the 6th Great Buddhist Council was convened and held in Rangoon from May 1954 to May 1956 to commemorate the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's birth. Teaching and meditation centers have been established in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand.

BUDDHISM MAHAYANA

Main features

The Changed Concept of the Ideal Buddhist

If the Theravadin strives to become an Arhat (“perfect”), ready for nirvana, then the Mahayanist elevates the path of a bodhisattva, that is, one who, like Gautama before enlightenment, promises to prepare for enlightenment in order to serve and save other suffering mortals. A bodhisattva, driven by great compassion, strives to achieve perfection in the necessary virtues (paramita). There are six such virtues: generosity, morality, patience, courage, focus, and wisdom. Even a bodhisattva who is worthy to enter nirvana refuses the final step and of his own free will remains in the turbulent world of regenerating existence for the sake of saving others. The Mahayanists considered their ideal to be more social and worthy than the ideal of an arhat, who seemed to them selfish and narrow.

Development of the interpretation of the Buddha

Mahayanists know and respect the traditional biography of Gautama Buddha. However, from their point of view, he is a manifestation of a certain primordial being - the eternal, cosmic Buddha, who finds himself in different worlds in order to proclaim the truth (dharma). This is explained by the "teaching of the three bodies (trikaya) of the Buddha." The highest truth and reality themselves are his dharma-body (dharma-kaya). His appearance as a Buddha to the delight of all the universes is his pleasure body (sambhoga-kaya). Embodied on earth in a specific person (in Gautam Buddha) is his transformation body (nirmana-kaya). All these bodies belong to the one highest Buddha, who is manifested through them.

Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

There are countless buddhas and bodhisattvas. Innumerable manifestations in the heavenly and earthly kingdoms have given rise to a whole pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in popular religion. In fact, they act as gods and helpers who can be addressed through offerings and prayers. Among them is Shakyamuni: it is believed that he was preceded by more ancient earthly Buddhas, and other future Buddhas should follow him. Heavenly Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are innumerable, just like the universes in which they operate. In this host of Buddhas, the most revered in East Asia are: the heavenly Buddhas - Amitabha, the Lord of the western paradise; Bhaisajyaguru, Teacher of Healing; Vairochana, the primordial eternal Buddha; Locana, the eternal Buddha as omnipresent; bodhisattvas - Avalokiteshvara, the deity of compassion; Mahasthama Prapta, "One who has attained great power"; Manjushri, the bodhisattva of meditation and wisdom; Ksitigarbha, who saves suffering spirits from hell; Samantabhadra, representing the mercy of the Buddha; earthly Buddhas - Gautama Buddha; Dipankara, twenty-fourth before him, and Maitreya, who will appear after him.

Theology

In the 10th century. an attempt was made to present the entire pantheon of later Buddhism in the form of a kind of theological scheme. The universe and all spiritual beings were seen as emanating from the original self-existent being called the Adi-Buddha. Through the power of thought (dhyana), he created five dhyani buddhas, including Vairochana and Amitabha, and five dhyani bodhisattvas, including Samantabhadra and Avalokiteshvara. They correspond to five human buddhas, or manushya-buddhas, including Gautama, the three earthly Buddhas that preceded him, and the future Buddha Maitreya. This scheme, which appears in Tantric literature, is widely known in Tibet and Nepal, but is clearly less popular in other countries. In China and Japan, the "doctrine of the three bodies of Buddha" was sufficient to harmonize the pantheon.

Philosophy

The Mahayanist approach led to more abstract ideas about the ultimate reality attained by the Buddha's insight. Two schools of thought were formed. The school founded by Nagarjuna (2nd century AD) was called the "middle path system". Another, founded by the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu (4th century AD), was called "the school of only consciousness." Nagarjuna argued that the ultimate reality is not expressible in any terms of finite existence. It can be described exclusively negatively as empty (shunya) or emptiness (shunyata). Asanga and Vasubandhu argued that it can also be defined positively - through the term "consciousness". In their opinion, everything that exists is only ideas, mental images, events in the all-embracing universal Consciousness. In a mere mortal, the consciousness is clouded with illusions and resembles a dusty mirror. But the Buddha's consciousness is revealed in complete purity, free from clouding. Sometimes the highest reality is called "Likeness" or "Truly that" (tatha ta), meaning "what is, as it is": this is another way of pointing to it, avoiding clarification in terms of finite experience.

Both schools distinguish between absolute and relative truth. Absolute truth is related to nirvana and is comprehensible only through the intuition of the Buddha. Relative truth lies within the transitory experience of unenlightened beings.

The fate of the unenlightened

Except for the Buddhas, who are not subject to death, everything is subject to the law of alternating deaths and rebirths. Beings constantly move up or down through five (or six) possibilities of incarnation, called gati (paths). Depending on his deeds (karma), a person is born again among people, gods, ghosts (preta), the inhabitants of hell, or (according to some texts) among demons (asuras). In art, these "paths" are depicted as a wheel with five and six spokes, the intervals between which are different possibilities of mortal existence.

THE SPREAD OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

India

From the very beginning, Mahayana ideas spread throughout the areas where sarvastivada was active. Initially, the school appeared in Magadha, but the most suitable place for it was the north-west of India, where contact with other cultures stimulated thought and helped to formulate Buddhist teachings in a new way. Ultimately, the Mahayana doctrine received a rational basis in the writings of such outstanding thinkers as Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu, and the logicians Dignaga (5th century) and Dharmakirti (7th century). Their interpretations spread among intellectuals and became the subject of debate in two of the most important centers of Buddhist scholarship: Taxila in Gandhara in the west of the country and Nalanda in Magadha in the east. The movement of thought also captured the small states to the north of India. Merchants, missionaries, travelers spread the Mahayana teaching along the Central Asian trade routes up to China, from where it penetrated into Korea and Japan. By the 8th century. Mahayana, with a touch of Tantrism, penetrated directly from India into Tibet.

Southeast Asia and Indonesia

Although Theravada was the dominant form of Buddhism in Southeast Asia, it cannot be said that Mahayana was completely absent from this region. In Sri Lanka, it existed in the form of "heresy" as early as the 3rd century, while in the 12th century. it was not supplanted by Theravada. Mahayana was popular in the north of Myanmar, in Pagan until the reign of King Anavrata (11th century). Anavrata's successors supported Theravada, and under strong pressure from the Theravada leaders, the Mahayana, deprived of royal patronage, fell into decay. The Mahayana came to Thailand from Sumatra around the middle of the 8th century. and flourished for some time in the south of the country. However, after the Theravada was consolidated in Myanmar and its penetration into Thailand in the 11th century. the Mahayana gave way to a new, stronger influence. In Laos and Cambodia, the Mahayana coexisted with Hinduism during the Angkorian period (9-15 centuries). During the reign of the last of the great temple builders, Jayavarman VII (1162-1201), the Mahayana was apparently proclaimed the official religion - with the veneration of merciful bodhisattvas and the establishment of hospitals in their honor. By the beginning of the 14th century. the Thai invasion led to a strong growth in the influence of Theravada, which over time began to play a leading role in this country, while the Mahayana practically disappeared. In Java and the Malay Archipelago, both Mahayana and Theravada spread along with other Indian influences. Although both forms of Buddhism were sometimes persecuted by Hindu rulers, they continued to exist until Islam began to supplant them (from the 15th century). In Vietnam in the 6-14 centuries. there were Zen schools.

China

Buddhism began to spread in China in the 1st century. AD and collided there with local belief systems, primarily Confucianism and Taoism. Confucianism placed at the forefront of moral, social and political principles, linking them with relations in the family, community, state. Taoism is more connected with interest in the cosmic, metaphysical, mystical and was an expression of the human striving for harmony with the highest nature or the Path (Tao) of the universe, beyond the vanity of earthly life.

In polemics with Confucianism, Buddhists emphasized the moral aspects of their doctrine, and when they criticized the celibacy of monks and detachment from worldly affairs, they replied that there is nothing wrong with this if it is done for the sake of the highest goal, and it (according to the Mahayana) includes the salvation of all family members along with "all living things." Buddhists pointed out that monks show respect for worldly power by invoking a blessing on the monarch when performing rituals. Nevertheless, throughout Chinese history, Confucians have been wary of Buddhism as a foreign and questionable religion.

The Buddhists found more support among the Taoists. During periods of political chaos and turmoil, many were attracted by the Taoist practice of self-absorption and the silence of Buddhist monasteries. In addition, the Taoists used concepts that helped them understand the philosophical ideas of Buddhists. For example, the Mahayanist concept of the highest reality as the Emptiness was more easily perceived in conjunction with the Taoist idea of ​​the Unnameable, "what lies beyond the forms and features." Indeed, the first translators used Taoist vocabulary to convey Sanskrit Buddhist terminology. This was their method (co and) of interpretation through analogy. As a result, Buddhism was originally understood in China through the so-called. "Dark knowledge" - the metaphysics of Taoism.

By the 4th century, attempts were made to more accurately translate Sanskrit texts. Prominent Chinese monks and Indian clerics collaborated under the auspices of the emperor. The largest of these was Kumarajiva (344-413), the translator of the great Mahayana sacred texts such as Lotus sutra, and an interpreter of the philosophy of Nagarjuna. In the centuries that followed, learned Chinese monks risked their lives by traveling by sea, crossing deserts and mountain ranges to reach India, studying at centers of Buddhist science, and bringing manuscripts to China for translation. The greatest of these was Xuan Jian (596–664), who spent nearly 16 years traveling and studying. His highly accurate translations include 75 works, including the main texts on the philosophy of Asanga and Vasubandhu.

As the Mahayana spread in China, various schools of thought and spiritual practice arose. At one time there were up to 10 of them, but then some merged and 4 major sects (tszong) remained. The Ch'an sect (Zen in Japan) assigned the main role to meditation. The Vinaya sect paid particular attention to the monastic rule. The Tien Tai sect advocated the unification of all Buddhist doctrines and methods of their practice. The "Pure Land" sect preached the worship of Buddha Amitabha, who saves all believers in his Paradise, in the Pure Land. No less popular was the cult of the Goddess of Mercy, Kuan-yin (the Chinese form of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara), which is considered the embodiment of maternal love and feminine charm. In Japan, the goddess is known as Kwannon.

There have been periods in the long history of Buddhism in China when Buddhism was persecuted at the instigation of Taoist or Confucian rivals in the imperial court. Nevertheless, his influence continued to grow. Neo-Confucianism during the Sun dynasty (960–1279) absorbed some aspects of Buddhism. As for Taoism, from the 5th century. he borrowed ideas, deities and cults from Buddhism, even a corpus of sacred Taoist texts appeared on the model of the Chinese Tripitaki... The Mahayana has had a strong and lasting influence on the art, architecture, philosophy and folklore of China.

Japan

Buddhism penetrated Japan at the end of the 6th century, when the country was tormented by civil strife. At first, Buddhism encountered resistance, as a foreign faith, capable of incurring the wrath of local gods - deified forces of nature on the natives, but in the end it was supported by Emperor Emey, who ascended the throne in 585. The local religion was called Shinto (path of the gods) at that time. unlike budsido (the path of the Buddha). These two "paths" were no longer considered incompatible. Under Empress Shuiko (592–628), Prince Regent Shotoku adopted Buddhism, which he saw as an effective tool for raising the cultural level of the people. In 592 he ordered to honor the "three treasures" (Buddha, dharma, sangha) by imperial decree. Shotoku supported the study of the sacred texts of Buddhism, built temples, and contributed to the spread of Buddhist forms in art, iconography and architecture. Buddhist monks from China and Korea were invited to Japan as teachers.

Over time, the most capable monks of Japan were sent to China. During the period when the country's capital was in Nara (710-783), Japan became acquainted with the doctrines of six schools of Buddhism, which were officially recognized by the 9th century. Through them Japan came to know the philosophical teachings of Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu; with the doctrines of the Kegon school (Avamsaka, or Wreath), which affirms the final enlightenment of all beings in the universe, as well as the precise rules of initiation and other rituals.

During the Heian period, the imperial capital was in Kyoto. Two more sects, Tendai and Shingon, were formed here. The Tendai sect (Tiantai Zong in Chinese) was founded by Sayte after studying at a mountain monastery in China. Tendai claims that Lotus sutra (Saddharmapundarika sutra) () contains the highest doctrine of all Buddhism, its Mahayanist concept of the eternity of Buddha. The Shingon (True Word) sect was founded by Kobo Daishi (774-835). In essence, the sect is a mystical, esoteric form of Buddhism, its teaching is that the Buddha is, as it were, hidden in all living beings. This can be realized with the help of special rituals - pronouncing mystical syllables, ritual plexus of fingers, magic spells, yogic concentration, manipulation of sacred vessels. This creates a feeling of the spiritual presence of Vairochana, and the adept attains union with the Buddha.

During the Kamakura era (1145-1333), the country was ruled by warriors, there were many wars, the country was mired in ignorance and corruption. Simpler religious forms were required that could help in an atmosphere of spiritual turmoil. During this time, four new sects arose.

The Sect of the Pure Land, founded by Honen (1133-1212), argued that support should be sought in the heavenly Buddha Amida (ie Amitabha). The Sin sect, founded by Honen's disciple Sinran (1173-1262), emphasized the need to seek support in the same Buddha, but "by faith alone." Both sects taught about salvation in the Pure Land, or in the paradise of Amida, but the Shinran sect called itself the "True Pure Land", for for its members the condition for salvation was only faith. In Japan today, more than half of the Buddhists belong to the Pure Land sects. Zen (Chinese Ch'an) became another form of simplified religion. This sect was formed around 1200. Its name, derived from the Sanskrit dhyana, means meditation. Members of the sect practice the discipline to nurture Buddha-nature in themselves - they meditate until a sudden illumination of truth (satori) occurs. Self-control seemed to be a very attractive occupation for the warriors of the Kamakura period, who chose the rinzai version for themselves, the most severe in Zen Buddhism, where training is carried out using stunning paradoxes (koans), the meaning of which is to free the inner vision from the habit of relying on ordinary logic. Another form of Zen Buddhism - Soto Zen - spread to wider circles of the population. Her followers were of little interest in the koans, they strove to realize the spirit of enlightenment (or attain Buddha nature) through meditation and correct behavior in all situations. The nichiren sect is named after its founder Nichiren (1222-1282), who was convinced that the whole truth of Buddhism is contained in Lotus sutra and that all the troubles of Japan of his time, including the threat of Mongol invasion, are due to the falling away of the Buddhist teachers from the true faith.

Lamaism

- one of the forms of Buddhism, widespread in the Tibetan region of China, Mongolia and a number of Himalayan principalities. Tibet became acquainted with Buddhism, with its later Indian version, in which tantric ideas and rituals were mixed with the weakened traditions of Hinayana and Mahayana, in the 8th century. and incorporated elements of the local Tibetan religion Bon. Bon was a form of shamanism, worship of the spirits of nature, in which human and animal sacrifices, magical rites, conspiracies, exorcism and witchcraft were allowed (; MAGIC). The first Buddhist monks from India and China gradually supplanted the old beliefs, until the appearance in 747 of the tantrist Padmasambha, who proclaimed a celibate "magical" form of Buddhism that eventually assimilated the Bon. The result is a system of beliefs and rituals known as Lamaism, whose clergy are named after lamas. The beginning of its reform was laid by Atisha, a teacher who arrived from India in 1042 and preached a more spiritual doctrine, arguing that religious life should develop in three stages: through Hinayana, or moral practice; by Mahayana, or philosophical comprehension; by tantrayana, or mystical union through tantra rituals. According to the theory, it was possible to proceed to the third stage only after mastering the first two. Atisha's "reforms" were continued by the Tibetan monk Tsonghava (1358-1419), who founded the Geluk-pa (virtuous path) sect. Tsonghava demanded that the monks observe the vow of celibacy and taught a higher understanding of tantric symbolism. After 1587, the Supreme Lama of this school began to be called the Dalai Lama (Dalai - "ocean expanse"). The sect's influence grew. In 1641, the Dalai Lama received all the fullness of both secular and spiritual power in Tibet. The Dalai Lamas were considered the incarnations of Chen-re-chi, the Bodhisattva of Great Mercy (Avalokiteshvara), the patron saint of Tibet. Another name for the Geluk-pa sect is more popular - the yellow-hats, in contrast to the more ancient Kagyu-pa sect - the red-hats. Since the time of Atisha, the worship of the goddess of mercy Tara, the Savior, has become widespread. The scriptures of Tibetan Buddhism are very extensive and have played a large role in the dissemination of the teachings. The sacred texts serve as the basis for the training of monks in monasteries and for the instruction of the laity. The greatest reverence is surrounded by the canonical texts, which are divided into two main groups. Kajur contains the teachings of the Buddha in full translation from the Sanskrit original (104 or 108 volumes), and The Four Great Tantras. Tanjur consists of commentaries on the above texts by Indian and Tibetan scholars (225 volumes).

Mahayana in the 20th century

The associations of lay Buddhists that have emerged in recent years have expressed a desire to connect the Mahayana teachings with modern life. Zen sects teach lay people meditation techniques as a way to maintain inner balance in the chaos of city life. In the sects of the Pure Land, the emphasis is on the virtues of the compassionate person: generosity, politeness, benevolence, honesty, cooperation and service. It is recognized that the Mahayana ideal of saving the living from suffering may well serve as an incentive for the establishment of hospitals, orphanages and schools. In Japan, especially after World War II, Buddhist monks are actively involved in social and humanitarian activities. In the PRC, the Mahayana continues to exist, despite the fact that the income of the monasteries has been greatly reduced. At sacred sites, the government allows traditional religious services to be held. Buddhist buildings of historical or cultural value have been rebuilt or restored. In 1953, with the permission of the government, a Buddhist Association was established in Beijing. Its goal was defined as maintaining friendly relations with Buddhists of neighboring countries, she organized an exchange of delegations with Buddhists from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Japan, India and Nepal. The Buddhist Buddhist Art Association supports the study and preservation of Buddhist cultural monuments. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, as well as in overseas Chinese communities — for example, in Singapore and the Philippines — Mahayanists have lay associations that organize popular lectures and distribute religious literature. In terms of academic research, Mahayana is studied most actively and in many ways in Japan. Ever since Masaharu Anesaki founded the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Tokyo (1905), Buddhism has become more and more interested in various universities throughout the country. In collaboration with Western scholars, especially after 1949, Japanese scholars are conducting research on a vast corpus of Chinese and Tibetan Buddhist texts. In Tibet, which for 300 years was a Lamaist theocratic state, isolation from the modern world did not contribute to the emergence of new forms of this religion.

Buddhism (buddha dharma"Teaching of the Enlightened One") - a religious and philosophical teaching (dharma) about spiritual awakening (bodhi), which arose around the 6th century BC. NS. in ancient India. The founder of the teaching is Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha Shakyamuni.

The followers of this Teaching themselves called it "Dharma" (Law, Teaching) or "Buddhadharma" (Teaching of Buddha). The term "Buddhism" was coined by Europeans in the 19th century.

The founder of Buddhism is the Indian prince Sidhartha Gautama (he is also Shakyamuni, that is, the "sage of the Shakya clan") - Buddha who lived in the Ganges valley (India). After spending a serene childhood and youth in his father's palace, he, shocked by meetings with a sick, old man, the corpse of the deceased and with an ascetic, went into hermitage, looking for a way to save people from suffering. After the "great enlightenment" he became an itinerant preacher of the doctrine of spiritual liberation, thereby setting the wheel of a new world religion in motion.

At the heart of the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama outlined the concept of the Four Noble Truths: about suffering, about the origin and causes of suffering, about the true cessation of suffering and the elimination of its sources, about the true ways to end suffering. The middle or Eightfold Path of attaining Nirvana is proposed. This path is directly related to the three types of cultivation of virtues: morality, concentration and wisdom - prajna. The spiritual practice of walking along these paths leads to a true end to suffering and finds its highest point in nirvana.

Buddha came to this world for the sake of beings wandering in the cycle of existence. Of the three types of miraculous manifestations - body, speech and thought - the main thing was the miraculous manifestation of speech, and therefore he came for the sake of turning the wheel of the Doctrine (i.e. preaching).

Teacher Shakyamuni was born into a royal family and spent the first period of his life as a prince. When he realized that all the joys of the cycle of being have the nature of suffering, he abandoned life in the palace and began to practice asceticism. Finally, in Bodh Gaya, he pointed out the way to achieve full enlightenment, and then in turn made three famous turns of the wheel of the Teaching.

According to the views of the Mahayana schools, the Buddha turned the wheel of Dharma three times: this means that he gave three large cycles of teachings that correspond to the different abilities of students and shows them the path to lasting happiness. From this time on, at the disposal of all who live in the era after the appearance of the Buddha, there are methods by which one can achieve the perfect state of complete Enlightenment.

According to the views of the most ancient unreformed school of Theravada, Buddha turned the Wheel of Teaching only once. During the recitation of the Dhammachakkapavatana Sutta in Varanasi. Further turns Theravada refers to later changes in the original doctrine.

During the first Turn of the Dharma Wheel:

The Buddha taught mainly the Four Noble Truths and the Law of Karma, which explain our situation in the cycle of existence and affirm the possibility of liberation from all suffering and the causes of suffering. In the first cycle of teachings, which deals mainly with external behavior, the role of a monk or nun corresponds. If we correlate these cycles of teachings with different directions of Buddhism, then we can say that the first cycle of teachings of the Buddha is the basis for the Theravada tradition.

During the second Turn of the Dharma Wheel:

The Buddha gave teachings on relative and absolute truth, as well as Dependent Arising (Theory of Dependent Existence) and Emptiness (Shunyata). He showed that things that appear according to the law of cause and effect (karma) are inherently free from real, independent existence. In the second cycle of teachings, which speaks of the inner attitude, the role of a lay person or lay woman, who takes responsibility for others, for example, for the family or for some social group, corresponds. This cycle of Buddha's teachings is the basis for the Great Vehicle (Mahayana).

During the third Turn of the Dharma Wheel:

Teachings were given about the inherent in all beings of the Enlightened nature (Buddha Nature), which contains all the perfect qualities and the original wisdom of the Buddha. In this cycle of teachings, the role of the practitioner is a yogi or a "perfectionist" yogini, who combine a pure view of things with constant practice. The third cycle of the Buddha's teachings is the basis for the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) and the Vehicle of Tantra (Vajrayana).

Buddha's teachings

The Buddha's teaching is called "dharma", which means "law." Buddhists refer this concept also to the name of their religion. Currently, there is disagreement as to what exactly the Buddha himself said, as there are many scriptures that claim to be the word of the Buddha.

All 84,000 teachings of the Buddha are based on his first sermons - "The Four Noble Truths" and "The Eightfold Path." Subsequently, Buddhism split into several branches, which clarified and developed various aspects of the teaching. The Buddha himself argued that it is important for every person to be aware of the boundaries of their faith and to respect the faith of others:

Man has faith. If he says, "This is my faith," he is holding on to the truth. But with this he cannot go to the absolute conclusion: "This is the only truth, and everything else is a lie."

Karma

All Far Eastern religions have a very keen sense that there is a moral law in the Universe. In Hinduism and Buddhism, it is called karma; this word in translation from Sanskrit means "action". Any human action - actions, words and even thoughts - is called karma. Good action creates good karma, and bad action creates bad karma. This karma affects the future of a person. The present not only creates the future, it is itself created by the past. Therefore, all the troubles of the present are considered by Buddhists as retribution for misdeeds committed either in this life or in the past, since Buddhists believe in reincarnation, reincarnation. Reincarnation is a doctrine shared by Hindus and Buddhists. In accordance with this understanding, after death, a person is born again in a new body. Thus, who a person is during life is the result of karma. The first two verses of the Dhamma Pada, a favorite Buddhist text, summarize the essence of karma.

If a person speaks and acts with impure thoughts, suffering follows him, like the wheel of a cart follows an animal harnessed to a cart.

What we are today is generated by what we thought yesterday, and our thoughts today give rise to our tomorrow's life; our life is a product of our thought.

If a person speaks and acts with pure thoughts, joy follows him like his own shadow.

This is also well described by Geshe Kelsang Giatso, a Tibetan Buddhist spiritual master:

“Every action we take leaves an imprint in our thought, and every imprint ultimately leads to consequences. Our thought is like a field, and doing actions is like sowing seeds in this field. Righteous actions sow the seeds of future happiness, and unrighteous ones actions sow the seeds of future suffering. These seeds are at rest in our thoughts until it is time for them to ripen, and then they have their effect. "

Therefore, it makes no sense to blame others for their troubles, "for a person himself commits evil, and he defiles himself. He does not commit evil either, and he purifies himself, Purity and impurity are linked. One cannot" purify the other. "Buddha said that the problem is that "it is easy to do what is unrighteous and what will harm you, but it is very difficult to do what is righteous and what will benefit you."

When talking with ordinary people, Buddha attached great importance to karma, fear of bad birth and the hope of a good birth. He told people how to prepare themselves for a good birth: to live a moral and responsible life, not to seek happiness in temporary material goods, to be kind and disinterested in relation to all people. Buddhist scriptures contain frightening pictures of hellish suffering and life as a pitiful ghost. Bad karma has a twofold effect - a person becomes unhappy in this life, loses friends or suffers from feelings of guilt and is reborn in some miserable state. Good karma leads to peace, tranquility, serene sleep, the love of friends and good health in this life and to a good birth after death, perhaps to stay in one of the heavenly worlds, where life is like paradise. While it may seem like the Buddha's teachings are very difficult to understand, one of the reasons it attracts people is because of its simplicity of language and practicality.

Remember, there are six ways to waste time and money: drunkenness, night wandering, going to fairs and festivals, gambling, bad company, and laziness.

There are six reasons why drunkenness is bad. It takes money, leads to quarrels and fights, causes illness, leads to notoriety, encourages immoral acts that you regret later, weakens the mind.

There are six reasons why night wanderings are bad. You may be beaten, your family will be left at home without your protection, you may be robbed, you may be suspected of crimes, rumors about you will be believed, and you will have all sorts of troubles.

Attending fairs and festivals means spending time thinking about music, instruments, dancing, entertainment, and forgetting important things.

Gambling is bad because if you lose you lose money, if you win you make enemies, no one trusts you, friends despise you, and no one will marry you.

Bad company means that your friends are bullies, drunkards, cheats and criminals, and can lead you on a bad path.

Laziness is bad because you spend your life achieving nothing, earning nothing. A bummer can always find excuses not to work: "too hot" or "too cold", "too early" or "too late", "I am too hungry" or "I am too full."

Although the moral teachings of Buddhism are largely similar to the ethical code of other religions, it is based on something different. Buddhists do not regard their principles as commandments of the Supreme Being, which should be obeyed. Rather, they are instructions on how to follow the path of spiritual growth and achieve perfection. Therefore, Buddhists try to understand how this or that rule should be used in a particular situation, and do not obey them blindly. For example, it is generally believed that lying is wrong, but in certain circumstances it may be justified - for example, when it comes to saving a human life.

"Whether an action is good, bad or neutral depends entirely on the thought that drives it. Good deeds come from good thoughts, bad ones from bad thoughts, and neutral actions come from neutral thoughts." / Geshe Kelsang Giatso. "Introduction to Buddhism"

Thus, whether a person follows instructions or not, the most important thing is what motives are dictated by this or that action, selfish or unselfish. For spiritual growth, it is not just the actions themselves that are important, but the reasons why you do them.

Deer Park Sermon

In the first sermon given after enlightenment, the Buddha revealed to his former companions what he had learned and what later became the center of his teaching. It should be remembered, however, that this sermon was read to five ascetic monks experienced in religious practice, who were prepared to understand and accept his words. As noted above, preaching to ordinary people was much simpler. In his sermon in Deer Park, Buddha compared himself to a doctor, whose work consists of four stages:

make a diagnosis of the disease;

determine the cause of the disease;

find a treatment path;

prescribe medicine.

Buddha told the ascetics that he was convinced by experience: in life, both the pursuit of pleasures and excessive asceticism bring the same harm. A moderate life, the Middle Way, led him to insight, peace and enlightenment. Following this path allowed him to clearly see the Four Truths.

Four Noble Truths

The first truth

The first truth is that life, as most beings know it, is in itself incomplete. Life is dukkha, which is usually translated as suffering. "This is the holy truth about suffering: birth is suffering, old age is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering; union with the unwelcome is suffering, separation from the dear is suffering, failure to achieve the desired is suffering."

Buddhists distinguish three forms of suffering:

1. Ordinary, simple suffering like the above. The more thoughtful and sensitive a person is, the more he realizes the suffering that underlies everything, from animals that hunt each other to a person who humiliates their own kind.
2. The second type of suffering comes from the impermanence of life. Even beautiful things are perishable, loved ones die, and sometimes we change so much that things that were previously enjoyable no longer make us happy. Therefore, even people who at first glance have all the available benefits are actually unhappy.
3. The third form of suffering is subtler. It is the feeling that life is always full of disappointment, dissatisfaction, disharmony and incompleteness. Life is as jumbled as a dislocated joint that hurts with every movement.

When a person finally realizes that life is dukkha, a desire comes to him to be free from suffering.

Second truth

The second truth is that the cause of suffering is tanha, our lust or selfish desires. We want, we want, we want ... without end. These desires come from ignorance. The reason for this desire is that we are blinded. We think that happiness can be found through external sources. "This is the Noble truth about the origin of suffering: our thirst leads to the renewal of being, accompanied by pleasure and greed, looking for pleasure here and there, in other words, this is a thirst for sensual experiences, a thirst for eternal life, a thirst for oblivion."

The Buddha identified six basic human misconceptions:

1. Ignorance- misunderstanding of the nature of cyclical existence and the law of cause and effect.
2. Greed- the desire to satisfy sensual needs, excessive attachment to objects and people that we find beautiful.
3. Anger- the biggest obstacle on the path to enlightenment, because it destroys the state of harmony both in the human soul and in the world.
4. Pride- a sense of superiority over others.
5. Doubt- insufficient faith in the cyclical nature of existence and karma, which becomes an obstacle on the path to enlightenment.
6. The doctrine of delusion- firm adherence to ideas that bring suffering to yourself and others

Third truth

By identifying the cause of suffering and getting rid of it, we can end suffering ourselves. "This is the Noble Truth about the cessation of suffering: no-waste disappearance and cessation, annihilation, withdrawal and abandonment of thirst."

The Buddha taught that because he was able to do this, we too can overcome suffering, thirst and ignorance. In order to achieve this, we need to give up craving, give up delusion. No happiness is possible until we free ourselves from the bondage of desires. We are sad because we strive for things that we do not have. And thus we become slaves to these things. The state of absolute inner peace, which a person achieves by overcoming the power of thirst, ignorance and suffering, Buddhists call nirvana. It is often said that the state of nirvana cannot be described, but can only be experienced - talking about it is like talking to a blind person about colors. By the nature of the Buddha, we can say that a person who has achieved nirvana remains alive, happy, energetic, never in apathy or boredom, always knows how to do the right thing, still feels the joys and sufferings of other people, but he himself is not subject to them.

Fourth Truth, or Eightfold Path

The fourth truth is a practical method by which you can fight lust and ignorance and end suffering. This is a whole way of life called the Middle Way, or the Noble Eightfold Path. By following this path of self-discipline, we can overcome our selfishness, become selfless people who live for the benefit of others. "This is the Noble Truth of How to Get Rid of Suffering: It is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of righteous knowledge, righteous intentions, righteous speech, righteous deeds, righteous lifestyle, righteous diligence, righteous thoughts, and righteous contemplation."

This lifestyle can be reduced to exercise in three areas:

• Moral discipline
• Contemplation
• Wisdom

Moral discipline is the determination to get rid of all evil deeds and to calm the thirst that overwhelms the mind. Having overcome this, it will be easier for us to delve into contemplation, leading to the achievement of inner peace. And when the mind is at rest, we can overcome our ignorance.

1. Righteous knowledge

Since suffering comes from a wrong philosophy of life, salvation begins with righteous knowledge. This means that we must accept the Buddha's teachings - his understanding of human life and the Four Noble Truths. Without accepting the essence of the teachings, it makes no sense for a person to follow the Path.

2. Righteous intentions

We must find the right attitude towards life, seeing our goal in enlightenment and selfless love for all that exists. In Buddhist ethics, actions are judged by intentions.

3. Righteous speech

Our speech is a reflection of character and a way to change it. With words, we can offend or, conversely, help someone. Unrighteous speech is lies, gossip, abuse, and swearing. In life, we are much more likely to bring people pain with our thoughtless words than with any other actions. Righteous speech includes helpful advice, words of comfort and encouragement, and so on. The Buddha often emphasized the value of silence when there is no way to say something useful.

4. Righteous deeds

As we change our actions, we must become first and foremost selfless and merciful. This is revealed in the Five Commandments, the moral code of Buddhism.

1. The first commandment - don't kill not only people, but also other living beings. Therefore, most Buddhists are vegetarians.
2. The second is do not steal because it upsets the community that everyone is a part of.
3. Third - refrain from promiscuity... The Buddha considered sex drive to be the strongest and most uncontrollable. Therefore, Buddha's attitude towards women is: "She is old? Treat her like a mother. She is respectable? Consider her a sister. She is of low rank? Treat her like a younger sister. She is a child? Treat her with respect and courtesy." ...
4. Fourth - avoid lying... A Buddhist is devoted to the truth, since lying betrays the liar and other people and causes suffering.
5. Fifth - abstinence from alcohol and drugs... A Buddhist tries to gain control over the desires of his body, mind and feelings, and alcohol and drugs prevent this.

In addition to prohibitions, Buddhism encourages virtues - the joy of a simple life, abandonment of material concerns, love and compassion for all things, tolerance.

5. A righteous lifestyle

Buddha talked about how to live without harming others. A person's occupations should not prevent him from observing the moral code. Therefore, Buddha condemned the slave trade, prostitution, the manufacture of weapons and intoxicants such as drugs and alcohol. You need to look for such activities that would serve the good of other people.

6. Righteous zeal

Spiritual growth begins with the fact that a person is aware of both the good and bad sides of his character. To follow the path of spiritual perfection, a person must inevitably make efforts, not allowing new bad thoughts to enter his soul, expelling the existing evil from there, cultivating good thoughts and improving himself. It takes patience and perseverance.

7. Righteous thoughts

"What we are is generated by what we think." Therefore, it is important to be able to subdue your thoughts. The human mind should not obey any random thoughts and reasoning. Therefore, Buddhists put a lot of effort into becoming more aware of themselves - their body, sensations, feelings and thoughts, which helps to develop self-control.

8. Righteous Contemplation

One can attain righteous contemplation through meditation. The purpose of meditation is to bring the spirit into a state in which it can perceive truth and attain wisdom.

What is meditation

We usually find it difficult to control our thinking. It seems as if our thought is like a balloon in the wind - external circumstances turn it in different directions. If all goes well, we have happy thoughts; as soon as circumstances change for the worse, thoughts become sad. For example, if we get what we want, some new thing or a new friend, we rejoice and only think about it; but since we cannot have everything we want, and because we have to lose what now pleases us, this mental attachment only hurts us. On the other hand, if we don't get what we want, or if we lose what we love, we feel frustrated and desperate. Such mood swings are due to the fact that we are too attached to the spring situation. We are like children who build a sand castle and are happy about it, and then upset when the tide carries it away. By practicing meditation, we create an inner space and clarity that allows us to control our thoughts regardless of external circumstances. Gradually we achieve inner balance; our mind becomes calm and happy, not knowing the fluctuations between the extremes of delight and despair. By constantly practicing meditation, we can eradicate from our consciousness those delusions that are the cause of all our troubles and suffering. In this way we will achieve permanent inner peace, nirvana. Then our successive lives will be filled only with peace and happiness.

Geshe Kelsang Giatso

Teaching of Buddhism. Basic concepts

1. Twelve Nidan

According to tradition, the opening of the "Chain of Causality" (twelve Nidanas) marked Gotama's attainment of enlightenment. The problem that had tormented him for many years was resolved. Reflecting from cause to cause, Gotama reached the source of evil:

1. Existence is suffering, for it contains old age, death, and a thousand sufferings.
2. I suffer because I was born.
3. I am born because I belong to the world of being.
4. I am born because I nourish existence in myself.
5. I feed him because I have desires.
6. I have desires because I have feelings.
7. I feel for I am in contact with the outside world.
8. This contact is produced by the action of my six senses.
9. My feelings are manifested because, as a person, I oppose myself to the impersonal.
10. I am a person, for I have a consciousness saturated with the consciousness of this person.
11. This consciousness was created as a result of my previous existence.
12. These existences darkened my consciousness, for I did not know.

It is customary to list this duodecimal formula in reverse order:

1. Avidya (defilement, ignorance)
2. Samsara (Karma)
3. Viznana (consciousness)
4. Kama - rupa (form, sensual and non-sensual)
5. Shad Ayatana (six transcendental senses)
6. Sparsha (touch)
7. Vedana (feeling)
8. Trishna (thirst, lust)
9. Upadana (attraction, attachment)
10. Bhava (being)
11. Jati (birth)
12. Jara (old age, death)

So, the source and the root cause of all the troubles of mankind is in darkness, in ignorance. Hence, Gotama's vivid definitions and condemnation of precisely ignorance. He argued that ignorance is the greatest crime, for it is the cause of all human suffering, forcing us to value what is unworthy to be valuable, to suffer where there should be no suffering, and, taking illusion for reality, spend our lives in pursuit of insignificant values, neglecting what is in reality the most valuable - knowledge of the secrets of human existence and destiny. The light that could dispel this darkness and deliver from suffering was revealed to Gotama as the knowledge of four noble truths:

2. The four noble truths of Buddhism:

1. There is suffering
2. Suffering has a reason
3. There is an end to suffering
4. There is a way to end suffering

3. Eightfold path

1. Correct understanding (free from superstition and delusion)
2. Right Thought (Sublime and Sage Befitting)
3. Correct speech (benevolent, sincere, truthful)
4. Correct action (peaceful, honest, clean)
5. Correct Effort (Self-Nurturing, Self-Control)
6. Correct behavior (not causing suffering)
7. Correct attention (active alertness of consciousness)
8. Correct Concentration (Deep Meditation on the Essence of Life)

Gotama Buddha also indicated the Ten Great Hindrances, called fetters:

1. Illusion of personality
2. Doubt
3. Superstition
4. Bodily passions
5. Hatred
6. Earth attachment
7. Desire for pleasure and comfort
8. Pride
9. Complacency
10. Ignorance

4. Five Commandments for Laymen

1. Dont kill
2. Do not steal
3. Do not commit adultery
4. Do not lie
5. Refrain from intoxicating drinks

Terms

Dharma- Teachings of Buddha. The word "dharma" has many meanings and literally translates as "that which holds or supports" (from the root dhr - "to hold"), and is usually translated into Russian as "law", its meaning is often given as "universal law of being" ... In addition, the Buddha's Teachings correspond to the Buddha-Dharma, the term that most Buddhists prefer to "Buddhism."

Sangha- in the broadest sense "community of Buddhists". Consists of practitioners who have not yet realized the true nature of their mind. In a narrow sense, for example, when taking Refuge, Sangha is recommended to be understood as the Liberated Sangha, a community of practitioners freed from the illusion of "ego" beings.

Three Jewels are Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, which are the common Refuge for all Buddhists around the world.

Refuge- among the Three Jewels, the real refuge is dharma, because only by realizing it in yourself, you can free yourself from the suffering of the cycle of being. Therefore, the Dharma is the real refuge, the Buddha is the teacher who shows you the path to realization, and the Sangha is the spiritual community, which consists of your fellow travelers.

Karma(Skt.) - physically - action; metaphysically - the law of cause and effect or Moral Causation. Each person, incessantly creates his own destiny, and all his abilities and strengths are nothing but the results of his previous actions and at the same time - the reasons for his future destiny.

Nirvana- a state of absolute spiritual attainment that destroys the cause-and-effect relationship of karmic existence. A state in which there is no more suffering.

Madhyamika is the teaching of the middle. The idea of ​​"madhyama pratipada", the Middle Way, free from the two extremes (luxury and exhausting austerity) was expressed by the Buddha himself. In the philosophical aspect, the middle is freedom from both nihilism (the idea that no phenomenon has an ontological status) and eternalism (belief in the existence of an absolute God, and the like). The main statement of Madhyamika boils down to the fact that all (all dharmas) are "empty", that is, devoid of "their own nature" (svabhava), their existence is the result of the action of the law of cause and effect. Beyond cause and effect, there is nothing, only Emptiness, shunyata. This is the "middle view".

Paramita- a literal translation from Sanskrit: "that which reaches the other shore", or "that which transports to the other shore" - the ability, the force through which Enlightenment is achieved. Paramita is the most important category of the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. The purpose of the paramitas is to benefit all living beings, filling them with immeasurably deep knowledge, so that thoughts are not attached to dharmas of any kind; for a correct vision of the essence of samsara and nirvana, for revealing the treasures of the wonderful Law; in order to be filled with knowledge and wisdom of unlimited liberation, knowledge that correctly distinguishes between the world of the Law and the world of living beings. The main meaning of paramitas is the comprehension of the fact that Samsara and Nirvana are identical.

Lists of six and ten paramitas are used in different schools of Buddhism:

1. Generosity (given)- an action that opens any situation. Generosity can be practiced at the level of material things, strength and joy, education, etc., but the best kind of generosity is to give others development and knowledge about the nature of mind, that is, the Dharma, making them independent at the highest level;
2. Ethics (shila)- means to lead a meaningful, useful life for oneself and others. It is practical to stick to meaningfulness and avoid negative things at the level of body, speech and mind;
3. Patience (kshanti)- not to lose what has been accumulated positive in the fire of anger. This does not mean turning the other cheek - it means acting effectively, but without anger;
4. Zeal (virya)- hard work, work hard, without losing the fresh joy of effort. Only by investing in something extra-strong without despondency and laziness, we gain access to special qualities and energies and are able to effectively move towards the goal;
5. Meditation (dhyana)- what makes life truly valuable. With the help of Shinei and Lhatong meditations (Skt .: Shamatha and Vipashyana), as in a laboratory, the skill of working with the mind is formed, a distance to emerging and disappearing thoughts and feelings and a deep vision of its nature are developed;
6. Wisdom (prajnaparamita)- knowledge of the true nature of the mind "openness, clarity and limitlessness." True spontaneous wisdom is not a multitude of ideas, but an intuitive understanding of everything. Here is the key to perfection in all paramitas. It is this understanding that subject, object and action are of the same nature that makes all the other five paramitas liberating.

Sometimes, speaking of the ten Liberating Actions, they add four more following from the sixth parmita:

1. Methods
2. Wishes
3. Primal Wisdom

Bodhichitta- the desire to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all living beings. Bodhicitta is the union of love and compassion. Compassion is the desire to free all living beings from suffering, and love is the desire for all of them to be happy. Thus, bodhicitta is a frame of mind in which you not only wish happiness for all living beings, but also develop the strength and willingness to take care of them. After all, even if we love all creatures and have compassion for them, but do nothing in practice, then there will be no real benefit from us. Therefore, in addition to love and compassion, we must cultivate a strong determination to do everything in our power to free other beings from suffering. But even these three points are still not enough for the development of bodhicitta. Wisdom is needed.

Bodhisattva- this is a person in whose consciousness Bodhicitta was born and blossomed, who reached the highest degrees of spirituality and made a vow not to go into nirvana as long as there is at least one living being in need of salvation. The state of a bodhisattva can and should be attained by every person. This concept plays a central role in Mahayana, achieving the state of Bodhisattva is considered not only possible for any person, but also necessary, since any living being has the seeds of bodhichitta.

Three Qualities of Life

All composite things are impermanent ( anicca), unsatisfactory ( dukkha), and selfless ( anatta). These three aspects are called Three Qualities or Three Signs of Life, because all composite things are governed by these three.

Anicca means temporary, fickle, changeable. Everything that arises is subject to destruction. In fact, nothing stays that way for the next two moments. Everything is subject to non-stop change. The three phases of arising, existing and ending can be found in all composite things; everything tends to stop. That is why it is important to understand with the heart the words of the Buddha: "Temporality is a conditional thing. Strive diligently to achieve your goal."

Dukkha means suffering, discontent, dissatisfaction, that which is difficult to bear, etc. This is because everything that is composite is changeable and ultimately brings suffering to those involved. Think about illness (as opposed to our idea of ​​health), lost loved ones and loved ones or animals, or confronting the vicissitudes of fate. Nothing depending on the conditions is not worth grasping, because by doing this we only bring unhappiness closer.

Anatta means selflessness, not-"I", not-ego, etc. Anatta means the fact that neither in ourselves nor in anyone else, the essence in the center of the heart is not an essence (sunnata) as such. At the same time, anatta means not only the absence of "I", although its understanding leads to this. Through the illusion of the existence of "I" (soul or unchanging personality) and the inevitably accompanying idea of ​​"I", misconceptions arise, which are expressed in such aspects as pride, arrogance, greed, aggression, violence and enmity.

Although we say that this body and mind are ours, this is not true. We cannot keep the body healthy, young and attractive all the time. We cannot constantly give our thoughts a positive direction, while our mind is in an unhappy or negative state (which in itself proves that thinking cannot be completely under our control).

If the permanent "I" or self does not exist, then there are only physical and mental processes (nama-rupa), which in a complex relationship with conditioning and interdependence form our existence. All this forms the khandhas, or (five) groups, which the unenlightened person considers as feelings (vedana), six types of sensory sensations (sanna), volitional structures (sankharas) and other types of consciousness (vinnana).

Due to a misunderstanding of the interaction of these groups, a person thinks that there is an "I" or a soul, and he attributes the unknown to an unknown, otherworldly, unknown force, which he must also serve in order to ensure a safe existence for himself. As a result, an ignorant person is constantly in a tense state between his desires and passions, his ignorance and ideas about reality. One who understands that the idea of ​​"I" is an illusion can free himself from suffering. This can be achieved by following the Noble Eightfold Path, which contributes to the moral, intellectual and spiritual development of the practitioner.

Four sublime states of mind

The four sublime states of mind - brahmavihara[in Pali (the language in which the Buddha spoke and in which his teachings are recorded)] - these are the four qualities of the heart, which, when developed to perfection, raise a person to the highest spiritual level. They are:

Metta, which can be translated as loving-kindness, all-encompassing love, benevolence, selfless universal and unlimited love. Metta indicates the quality of the mind, which has the goal of achieving happiness for others. The direct consequences of metta are: virtue, freedom from irritability and excitement, peace within us and in relations with the world around us. To do this, one should develop metta for all living beings, including the smallest ones. Metta should not be confused with sensual and selective love, although metta has much in common with a mother's love for her only child.

Karuna which means compassion. The quality of karuna is the desire to free others from suffering. In this sense, compassion is something completely different from pity. It leads to generosity and a desire to help with another word and action. Karuna plays an important role in the Buddha's Teaching, which is also called the Teaching of Wisdom and Compassion. It was the deep compassion of the Buddha that led him to the decision to clarify the Dharma to all sentient beings. Love and Compassion are the two cornerstones of Dharma practice, which is why Buddhism is sometimes called the religion of peace.

Mudita- it is the sympathetic joy that we feel when we see or hear about the happiness and well-being of others, it is the joy of the success of others without a tinge of envy. Through compassionate joy, we develop the qualities of the heart such as happiness and morality.

Upekkha or equanimity indicates a calm, steady and stable state of mind. It is especially evident when confronted with unhappiness and failure. Some face any situation with equanimity with the same courage, without worry or despair. If they find out about someone's failure, they feel neither regret nor joy. Calmly and impartially, they treat everyone equally, in any situation. Regular reflection on actions (karma) and their results (vipaka) destroys bias and selectivity, leading to the realization that everyone is the owner and heir of their actions. Thus, an understanding of what is good and what is bad, what is good and what is bad, arises, and ultimately our actions will become controlled, leading to good and further to the highest degree of liberating wisdom. Daily meditation with the aim of developing these Four Higher States of Mind will make them habitual and thus lead to inner stability and getting rid of hindrances and obstacles.

Sacred Texts: Tipitaka (Tripitaka)

Canonical literature is known by the Pali name Tipitaka(Sanskrit - Tripitaka), which literally means "triple basket" and is usually translated as follows: "Three baskets of the law (doctrine)". Apparently, the texts, originally written on palm leaves, were once kept in wicker baskets.

The most fully preserved Pali version of the Tipitaka, created by the Theravadin school, which is considered by many to be the most orthodox trend in Buddhism. According to legend, having gathered together after the death of Buddha in the city of Rajagriha, the monks listened to the messages of Shakyamuni's closest disciples about the main provisions of the teachings. Upali spoke about the rules of conduct for monks established by the Buddha, Ananda - about the teachings of the founder of the new religion, expressed in the form of parables and conversations, Kashyap - about the philosophical reflections of the teacher. This legend explains the division of the Tipitaka into three main parts - Vinaya Pitaka ("basket of the ordinance"), Sutta Pitaka ("basket of teachings") and Abhidammapitaka ("basket of teaching interpretation" or "basket of pure knowledge"). In various directions of Buddhism, there are other principles of grouping the texts united by the Tipitaka: five nikay (assemblies), nine angs (parts), etc.

The legends that are part of the now known text of the Pali Tipitaka were formed over several centuries and were originally transmitted orally. The recording of these legends was made for the first time only in the 1st century BC. NS. in Ceylon. Naturally, only much later lists have come down to us, and various schools and directions subsequently changed many places in the Tipitaka texts. Therefore, in 1871 in Mandalay (Burma) a special Buddhist council was convened, at which 2,400 monks, by checking various lists and translations, worked out a unified text of the Tipitaka. This text was then carved on 729 marble slabs, each of which was placed in a separate miniature peaked temple. Thus, a kind of library-town was created, a repository of the canon - Kutodo, a place revered now by all Buddhists in the world.

Vinaya Pitaka

The earliest part of the Pali Tipitaka is Vinaya Pitaka... Most often it is divided into three sections (Sutta-vibhanga, Khandhaka and Parivara).

The Sutta Vibhanga contains an exposition and explanation of the Patimokkha Sutta, which is the core of the Vinaya Pitaka. The Patimokkha Sutta is an enumeration of the offenses committed by the monks and nuns of the Buddhist community, and the punishments that follow these offenses.

In the part of the Sutta Vibhanga commenting on the Patimokkha Sutta, the rules of behavior for monks are included in lengthy stories about what events were the reason for the Buddha to establish one rule or another. This part begins with a story about how, during his wanderings with the aim of spreading the teachings, the Buddha came to the village of Kalandaka near Vaisali and persuaded by his sermon to enter monasticism a certain Sudinnu, the son of a wealthy usurer. At this time, famine broke out in the country. Sudinna decided to go to Vaisali, where he had many wealthy relatives, in order to receive abundant alms. The mother found out about his arrival and persuaded Sudinna's wife to meet with him and ask him to give her a son. Sudinna yielded to her request. Returning to the community, he repented and reported his sin to his brothers. The Buddha severely reprimanded Sudinna and established a rule according to which a monk who is guilty of sexual intemperance commits the sin of the first section of the Patimokkha Sutta ("parajika") and becomes unworthy of being a monk.

The establishment of other rules of the Patimokkha Sutta is explained in the same manner. For each rule, a detailed analysis of the possible options for the misconduct is given, including those circumstances that exempt the perpetrator from punishment. So, examining the case when the monk Udayn touched the body of a brahmana who entered his room, the commentator asks the questions: "was the contact deliberate or accidental," "what is the contact in reality," etc. And then he proves that contacts with the mother , sister and daughter are not sins.

So, in detail, only the most important offenses are commented in the Sutta-vibhanga, the rest of the rules (and there are 277 or 250 of them in total) are explained either much shorter or completely omitted in the explanations. The requirements for monks and nuns are slightly different.

The next part of the Vinaya Pitaka is called Khandhaka. It is divided into two books - Mahavagga and Kullawagga. It is impossible to grasp a clear principle in this division. Both books are devoted to the history of the development of the Buddhist monastic community, starting from the moment Gautama achieved "insight". Thus, in Khandhak we meet with certain elements of the biography of the Buddha. The Khandhaka describes in detail the main ceremonies and rituals in the community, the rules for the conduct of monks during the day, the procedure for holding traditional meetings known as "uposatha", the behavior of the community during the dry season and during the rainy season. Precise rules were laid down regarding the sewing, sewing and dyeing of monastic robes from materials donated by the laity.

The analysis of Khandhaka makes it possible to see how the Buddhist community went in its development from the strictest asceticism, characteristic of many religious systems of Ancient India, to that completely comfortable and far from mortification of the flesh life that characterizes the Buddhist monasteries of the first centuries of our era and subsequent times. Especially in this respect, the story about the evil cousin of the Buddha - Devadatta, given in the seventh chapter of the Kullawagga, is characteristic. Devadatta joined the community after the Buddha visited his hometown. However, he was soon expelled from it because he led the monks who sowed unrest in the community. Then he decided to kill Buddha. He made three assassination attempts: he sent a gang of hired thugs, threw a huge stone from the mountain and released a mad elephant into Rajagrihi Street, where Buddha was passing. But Buddha remained unharmed. Even the elephant at the sight of the Buddha humbly bowed its knees before him. Then Devadatta and his five friends demanded that the following rules, obligatory for all monks, be introduced in the community: 1) live only in the forests, 2) eat only alms, 3) dress only in rags, 4) never spend the night under a roof, 5) never eat fish or meat. The Buddha rejected these demands. The legend of Devadatta vividly illustrates the evolution of the Buddhist community from extreme asceticism to a life closer to the laity. The last part of the Vinaya Pitaka - Parivara, is composed in the form of questions and answers, briefly setting out some of the provisions of the previous parts of the Vinaya Pitaka. It is generally believed to be included in the canon to facilitate the memorization of the many rules and prohibitions by the monks.

Sutta pitaka

The second, most important and most extensive section of the Tipitaka is Sutta pitaka... If the Vinaya Pitaka is located in Kutodo on 111 marble slabs, then the Sutta Pitaka is allocated 410 slabs.

The Sutta Pitaka consists of five collections (pikai), setting out the teachings of Buddhism in the form of parables and conversations attributed to the Buddha and his closest disciples. In addition, it includes other works of a very diverse nature, collections of legends and aphorisms, poems, commentaries, etc.

The first collection - Digha-nikaya ("collection of lengthy teachings") consists of 34 suttas (verse sayings), each of which is devoted to a briefly formulated position of the doctrine, included in a detailed episode from the biography of Buddha. Thus, the Brahmajala Sutta tells the story of a dispute between an ascetic and his disciple, who praised the Buddha. This controversy is used to prove the superiority of Buddhism over Brahmanism and popular superstitious beliefs. Samannaphalasutta confronts the doctrines of the six heretical teachers with the basic tenets of Buddhism and shows the benefits of joining a Buddhist monastic community. In a number of suttas, the teaching of the Brahmans that their very birth in this "varna" (the ancient name for castes) gives them some privileges in salvation is sharply criticized. Much attention is paid to the criticism of asceticism as a method of salvation; it is contrasted with love, compassion, equanimity and lack of envy. Along with the myths about the origin of the world, Digha-nikaya also includes such a completely realistic story as Mahaparinibbanasutta, which tells about the last days of the Buddha's earthly life, the circumstances of his death, the burning of his body and the separation of the remains after being burned. It is here that the last words of the Buddha, widely quoted and by other texts, are given. "Everything that exists is doomed to destruction, so work tirelessly for salvation."

The second collection of the Sutta-pitaka - Majhima-nikaya ("collection of secondary teachings") contains 152 suttas, largely repeating the contents of the first collection, but more laconic in their style. There is an assumption that both of the first collections of the Sutta Pitaka were the result of recording two directions of Buddhism, each of which had its own traditions and characteristics in the oral transmission of legends.

The third and fourth collections - Samyutta-nikaya ("collection of related teachings") and Anguttara-nikaya ("collection of teachings, one more number") are undoubtedly later in origin than the first two collections of the Sutta-pitaka. Anguttara Nikaya, which is the largest collection of suttas in the Sutta Pitaka (there are more than 2,300 in it), arranges them in a certain numerical order: three treasures of salvation, four "noble truths", five virtues of a disciple, eight members of the "noble ways of salvation ", ten sins and ten virtues, etc.

The fifth collection of Sutta-Pitaka -Khuddaka-nikaya ("collection of short teachings") consists of 15 very diverse works, created, as a rule, later than most of the above-mentioned parts of the Tipitaka.

The first book of the Khuddaka-nikai Khud-daka-patha ("collection of short aphorisms") contains, as it were, a set of basic principles of the Buddhist teaching on salvation, the "saranagamana" formula, about Buddha, teaching and community as three conditions of salvation; 10 requirements for a monk; 10 questions for those entering the community, etc. Udana is a collection of short lyric poems on religious topics, which the Buddha probably uttered about certain events in his life. The collections of chants of monks and nuns (Thera-gatha and Theri-gatha) are very interesting - the oldest texts of the canon, vividly depicting the detachment from life, which was required by early Buddhism to end rebirth - suffering. Buddhavamsa contains legends about 24 Buddhas, during the apparitions of which Gautam Buddha performed an infinite number of reincarnations necessary to develop the virtues characteristic of a bodhisattva.

Jataka is a collection of stories (jatak) about 550 different events that took place during the previous reincarnations of the Buddha, before his appearance on earth in the form of Gautama.

Sutta-nipata is devoted to a number of episodes from the life of the Buddha, and mainly to moral themes in his teachings.

Finally, the Dhammapada ("path of teaching") is perhaps the most famous part of the canon, not only because it most systematically and consistently sets out the main tenets of the teachings of early Buddhism, but also because it does so in a laconic, figurative, impressive form. Numerous variants of this monument have been discovered, indicating that it went through a long history of its formation. All suttas are imbued with the idea of ​​the doom of everything that exists, about suffering, evil as the basic qualities of all existence, about the humility of one's desires and passions, about overcoming attachment to everything earthly as the only way to salvation. The Dhammapada is a prime example of how Buddhism uses emotional means to spread its teachings.

Abhidamma Pitaka

The third and final section of the Tipitaka is Abhidamma Pitaka... Her texts are placed in Kutodo on 208 plates. It consists of seven sections, which is why it is sometimes also called Sattapakarana (Seven Treatises). The most important of them is the first - Dhammasangani, that is, "enumeration of dhammas". The word "dhamma" in Pali, or "dharma" in Sanskrit, has several meanings in Buddhist literature. It is often used to express the concepts of "law", "doctrine". Often it refers to the very doctrine of Buddhism. Finally, it is found, especially in the literature of the Abhidamma, in a very special meaning - the primary particle of spiritual being, the smallest particle of consciousness, "the bearer of the element of the psyche."

The Dhammasangani sets out the Buddhist interpretation of the entire sensory world as a product of the consciousness of the person himself. The totality of ideas created by the person himself is, according to Buddhism, the world we perceive. Dhammas are the smallest elements of our consciousness, which, instantly manifesting, and in their combinations give that illusion, which is called the subject, along with everything that he is aware of. The treatise gives a detailed listing and analysis of the dhammas.

The second treatise of the Abhidamma Pitaka, Vibhanga, deals with the same problems as the first.

The third treatise - Kattha-vatthu - reflects the disputes that went on between Buddhist scholastics during the formation of the philosophical foundations of this religion.

The Puggala-pannyatti treatise is devoted to those steps, or categories of states, which a living being must pass on the path to ending the disturbance of the dhammas, that is, to non-being, nirvana, salvation. The Dhatukattha treatise addresses these same issues, with particular emphasis on the field of psychology. Yamaka deals with problems of logic. Patthana is a category of causality, of course, also from the standpoint of the Buddhist worldview.

Non-canonical literature

Non-canonical literature includes biographies of the Buddha. All of them are of a relatively late origin, that is, they were compiled not earlier than the 2nd-3rd centuries. n. NS. They rely on fragmentary biographical information that is gleaned from various works of canon literature. But this information is closely intertwined with various myths and legends, the purpose of which is to show the divinity of Buddha Gautama.

The following five biographies are best known: Mahavastu, probably written in the 2nd century. n. NS. and included by some schools in the Vinaya Pitaka; Lalitavistara, created by the Sarvastivadin school in the 11-111 centuries. n. NS.; Buddhacharita, attributed to Ashvagosha, a famous Buddhist philosopher and poet, contemporary of the Kushan king Kanishka (1st-2nd centuries AD); Nidanakattha, which is the introduction to the Mahayana edition of the Jataka; Abhinishkramanasutra attributed to Dharmagupta and known only from Chinese translations.

Mahavastu is an extensive work (almost one and a half thousand pages of printed text), in which individual historical facts are interspersed with numerous legends. The first volume describes in detail hell with all its torments prepared for sinners, and then successively reveals the four stages (karya) that a person must go through in order to attain Buddhahood. These stages are given in connection with the demonstration of the ascent of the future Buddha Gautama along them during his countless previous reincarnations with extensive borrowings from the Jatakas. The presentation is suddenly interrupted by episodes from the preaching life of Shakyamuni, a consideration of the origin of the clans of Shakis and Koliyas, to which Gautama's parents belonged, a description of the origin of the world and its first inhabitants, etc. the bodhisattva of time, place, continent and family for his earthly appearance before birth, childhood, marriage, the achievement of "great insight" and individual episodes of preaching work. At this Mahavastu ends. Buddha Mahavastu is a supernatural being who constantly performs miracles, and faith in him alone can bring salvation.

Nidanakatha divides the history of Buddha into a "distant era", describing his previous reincarnations up to the appearance of Tushita in heaven, from where he had already descended to earth, and "intermediate" and "subsequent epochs" dedicated to his earthly biography, which is also not brought to the final stages.

Buddhacharita, written in pure Sanskrit in the sublime kavya style, is not at all like other biographies. She, following mainly the Pali tradition, poetically describes the most important stages of the earthly life of the Buddha up to the first council, which took place after his death. Buddha is depicted here as a human being who has achieved perfection as a result of merits in previous reincarnations.

The Abhinishkramana-sutra is closer in character to Lalitavisgara than to Mahavasta, although, like the latter, it also sets out the jatakas in detail, citing them mainly to emphasize the most important points of the preaching work of the Buddha.

Of the other most famous non-canonical literature, popular in Buddhist countries and important for the study of Buddhism, is Milinda-panha ("Questions of King Milinda"). The date of writing this work lies between the 2nd and 4th centuries. n. NS. It expounds the teachings of Buddhism in the form of questions posed by the Greek king Menander (Milinda), who ruled in Northern India in the 2nd century. n. e "and the answers to them of the famous Mahayanist sage Nagasena. Of great interest are the chronicles compiled in the 4th-5th centuries AD in Ceylon - Dipavansa and Mahavansa, in which, along with mythological plots and legends, significant historical facts are also presented ...

Further development of Buddhist literature, which went mainly in the form of commenting on the canon, is associated with the names of Nagarjuna, Buddhaghosha, Buddhadatta, Dhammapala, Asanga, Vasubandhu, who lived and wrote during the heyday of Buddhism in North India and Ceylon in the 4th-8th centuries. n. NS.

Historical development

Over the centuries, Buddhism has undergone amazing changes. Its spread from the north of India was very rapid. Since the III century. BC e., before the campaigns of Alexander the Great, he ruled over all of India along with the Brahmanism from which he originated, and extended to the shores of the Caspian Sea, where Afghanistan and Central Asia are today.

Thanks to the support of the Buddhist king Ashoka, who ruled in India in 273-230. BC BC, missionaries converted Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Then it spread very quickly to other countries in Asia.

The link with China was established through the silk trade. The first Buddhist community in this country appeared during the reign of the Han dynasty in 67 AD. e., however, Buddhism was firmly established in the north of the country only a century later, and by 300 - in the south, under the auspices of the aristocracy. In 470, Buddhism was declared the official religion in northern China. Then he reached Japan via Korea.

By the same time, Buddhist monks of Ceylon converted Burma to this faith, and a little later - Indonesia.

Expanding to the east, Buddhism is losing ground in the west: having reached Japan, it weakens in India.

In Thailand and Laos, he replaced Hinduism. In Sri Lanka and Nepal, Buddhism coexists with Hinduism. In China, it is combined with Taoism and Confucianism, and in Japan with Shintoism. In India, where it came from, Buddhists make up no more than 1% of the population - half as many as Christians or Sikhs.

In South Korea, Buddhism begins to recede before Christian religions, but still retains its first place. In Japan, it sometimes takes on special forms, which we will consider next. One of them is Zen.

Much more alarming is the position of Buddhism in countries with a communist orientation. In China, by 1930, there were 500 thousand Buddhist monks, and in 1954 there were no more than 2500 of them. In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge systematically exterminated Buddhist monks, and in Vietnam their influence was significantly weakened. It is very difficult to assess what is left of the rituals and Buddhist spirituality in these countries. It is only known that this blow inflicted on Buddhism threw it back 50 years. Buddhism is still expanding in countries with growing population growth and strong commitment to it, such as Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand. Recently, however, Buddhist spirituality has attracted considerable interest in many people in the West.

Directions of Buddhism

Theravada

"Teaching of the Elders"

The earliest trend in Buddhism was formed immediately after the departure of the Buddha - called Theravada. The followers tried to keep in memory every word, every gesture and every episode from the teacher's life. That is why adherents of Theravada attach such importance to periodic meetings of scholarly monks - sangiti, whose participants restore the life and teachings of the Buddha again and again. The last sangiti was held in 1954-1956 in the city of Mandalay (Burma). The Theravada movement was a monastic organization dependent on the laity, but not oriented towards them.

Attaining enlightenment was thought of as literally following Gautama's lifestyle and meditation practice. Followers of Theravada consider Buddha to be an earthly being who attained enlightenment through his unique abilities through 550 rebirths; therefore, according to the Theravada teachings, Buddha appears among people every 5 thousand years.

For them, he is a teacher, whose knowledge is recorded in the Pali canonical text of the Tipitaka and explained in numerous commentary literature. The Theravada followers from the very beginning were intolerant of the slightest deviations from the disciplinary rules of the monastic community and from the orthodox interpretation of the Buddha's way of life and deeds, and they constantly fought dissidents.

In the third sangiti (middle of the 5th century BC) under King Ashoka, the followers of Theravada were divided into 3 large groups: vatsiputriya, sarvastivada and vibhajayavada - the last group consisted of the most orthodox followers, who after 100 years established themselves in Sri Lanka, which became subsequently the stronghold of Theravada. At present, Theravada Buddhism is widespread in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, partly in India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Malaysia, Nepal.

In each of these countries, due to the interaction of Theravada with local cultural and religious traditions, national forms of Theravada Buddhism have developed. The specificity of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, professed by its main population - the Sinhalese, is expressed, first of all, in the fact that the information of a mythological, legendary, historical nature contained in the historical chronicles of Dipavans and Mahavans, as it were, projects the ancient Indian picture of Buddhism on Lanka, including allegations of the repeated stay of Tsarevich Gautama there. As a result, the version that the island was the birthplace of Buddhism was firmly established here.

Key ideas

The ideal personality of Theravada is an arhat. This word means "worthy" (the Tibetan etymology of this word as "destroyer of enemies", that is, affects - klesh, is erroneous and can be considered a folk etymology). An arhat is a holy monk (bhikshu; pali: bhikkhu) who, through his own efforts, achieved the goal of the Noble Eightfold Path - nirvana - and left the world forever.

On the way to nirvana, a monk goes through a series of steps:

1. Step entered the stream (srotapanna), that is, who has taken the path irrevocably; "entered the stream" can no longer degrade and go astray
2. Step returning once (sacridagamine), that is, a person whose consciousness in another birth must return to the level of the world of desires (kamadhatu)
3. Step no longer returning (anagamine), that is, a saint whose consciousness will henceforth always be in a state of meditative concentration on the level of the worlds of forms (rupadhatu) and non-forms (arupadhatu).

The practice of anagamine ends with the attainment of the fruit of arhatism and entry into nirvana "without residue" (anupadhisesa nirvana).

According to the Theravada teachings, the Buddha before his awakening was an ordinary person, only endowed with great virtues and holiness, acquired through cultivation over many hundreds of lifetimes. After awakening (bodhi), which from the point of view of Theravada was nothing more than the attainment of the fruit of arhatism, Siddhartha Gautama ceased to be a person in the proper sense of the word, becoming a Buddha, that is, an enlightened and liberated from samsara "being" (this word is here by need to be put in quotation marks, since Buddhists call "beings" only the "inhabitants" of the Troyemiry of samsara, not Buddhas), but not God or any other supernatural entity.

If people, being monks (Theravada emphasizes that only a monk who observes all the Vinaya vows, can become an arhat and acquire nirvana), begin to follow the example of Buddha and his teachings in everything, then they will achieve the same that he achieved. The Buddha himself went into nirvana, he is not in the world, and there is no world for him, and therefore it makes no sense for him to pray or ask him for help. Any worship of the Buddha and the offering of gifts to his images are needed not by the Buddha, but by people who thus pay off their debt to the memory of the great Liberator (or the Winner - Jina, one of the Buddha's epithets) and who practice the virtue of giving.

Theravada is a purely monastic form of Buddhism. Within the framework of this tradition, only monks can be considered Buddhists in the proper sense of the word. Only monks can realize the goal of Buddhism - finding the peace of nirvana, only monks are open to all the instructions of the Blessed One, and only monks can practice the methods of psycho-practice prescribed by the Buddha.

The only thing left for the laity is to improve their karma through the performance of good deeds and the accumulation of merit acquired through the support and maintenance of the sangha. And thanks to these merits, the lay people in one of their subsequent lives will be able to become worthy of taking monastic vows, after which they will enter the Noble Eightfold Path. Therefore, Theravadins never aspired to particularly active missionary activity or to involve lay people in the life of the sangha and various forms of religious activity.

Among the followers of Theravada, a distinction is made between the hearer (sravakas) and the solely awakened (pratyekabuddhas). Both have five paths, which together constitute ten Theravada paths.

Although the hearers are lower and the solely awakened ones are higher, they have the same basis. Both of them follow the teachings of the Theravada path, which serves as a method only for individual liberation from the cycle of being. In short, they take as a basis a set of ethical rules, combined with a firm intention to get out of the cycle of being, and on the basis of this they develop the unity of serenity (shamatha) and special comprehension (vipashyana), aspiring to emptiness. Thus, they get rid of the filth (samsar) and their seeds, so that filth cannot grow again. By acting in this way, they attain liberation.

Both the hearers and the solely awakened ones must successively traverse five paths: the path of accumulation, application, vision, meditation, and no-teaching-more. One who follows these paths is called a follower of Theravada.

The goal of the Theravada teachings is to achieve personal salvation, nirvana. The main concern of Theravada teachings is not to harm others by controlling our own behavior. Therefore, the first thing a person does is receive a vow of Refuge and observes certain rules. There are hundreds of rules to achieve this goal. The Buddha himself said: "Having before you an example of your own feelings, do not harm others." If someone does nasty things to you, then you notice it.

Knowing what it means to be upset, don't upset others. The true meaning of Refuge is that you recognize the path to realization taught by the Buddha, and according to this path you take certain actions and thereby control your behavior. When a Theravada vow is taken, it is taken from now until death. It is not accepted from this moment until full realization, because the vow is associated with the present state.

It should be done through behavior that ends in death. The body is sent to the cemetery, and the vow ends there. If until the very moment of death this vow was kept in purity, then a good deed was performed. Keeping such a vow knows no exceptions, and it cannot be changed in accordance with our changed views. If there is a concrete and compelling reason for lifting the vow, then you can skip it. Otherwise, this vow continues to bind a person from the moment of acceptance until the moment of death.

Later, the Theravada system underwent development. Besides the vow of refuge given to nuns and monks, there is also an upasaka vow for the laity. Lay people can take a vow with a single rule, such as not to kill, or with two rules - with the addition of a vow not to steal - and so on. There may be different levels until the full vow of a fully ordained monk or nun is eventually taken (Source - Chogyal Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche - An Overview of Tibetan Buddhist Traditions).

Local features of Theravada Buddhism

Sinhalese Buddhism emphasizes the magical power of Buddhist relics that protect the island from evil forces and attract good deities to Lanka. Therefore, the rites of worship of these deities are closely linked with magical practice in Buddhism. A typical example is the Kandyan perahera, consisting of 5 processions dedicated to the Tooth of the Buddha, the gods Natha, Vishnu, Kataragama (Skandha) and the goddess Pattini. Sinhalese chronicles have always quite effectively influenced the actions of the rulers of the Sri Lankan states and encouraged the Sangha to intervene in politics.

In Burma and Thailand, one can speak about the ideological influence of Buddhism on the mass consciousness of believers only from the beginning of the 2nd millennium AD. e., when large Burmese and Thai states began to take shape on the territory of western Indochina, in need of a developed ideology. This was probably one of the reasons that prompted the rulers of Pagan, Chiengsen, Sukhothai, Ayutthaya and other young states to get hold of the Pali canon in its entirety, which, according to rumor, existed in the coastal Mon city-states. Fragments of the struggle for the Pali canon are reflected in the historical chronicles of many states.

A huge array of canonical liters per Pali, which poured into the countries of Southeast Asia, especially after the establishment of close contacts with the states of Lanka, had a profound impact on many spheres of public consciousness of the peoples of Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia: on oral poetry, literature, art , law, philosophy, architecture, political views and so on. However, due to historical and cultural differences and religious beliefs among the Burmese, Thai and Khmers, as well as other socio-political conditions of development, Theravada Buddhism acquired a national specificity in the countries of Southeast Asia.

In Burma, traditional Burmese beliefs in naga spirits were easily incorporated into Buddhist culture, since in canonical texts nagas (in Indian mythology - nagas, nagas - snakes) are highly revered, since the king of the nagas covered the Buddha with his hood.

A consequence of the fusion of folk and Buddhist beliefs was the fact that the Burmese attached special importance to magical ritual actions, in connection with which Buddhist meditation acquired a different content in Burma than in Sri Lanka and Thailand: on the philosophical level, through meditation, the content of the highest truth is realized ( abhidharmas) (Burmese monks are considered experts in Abhitharma literature, their authority in this area is recognized even by Sinhalese monks); in practical life, many Burmese monks try to obtain supernatural powers through meditation, which does not contradict the teachings of Buddhism.

A number of sections of the Sutta Pitaka contain descriptions of six types of "supreme power" that allow one to fly through the air, walk on water, ascend and descend to any level of existence, dismember matter into primary elements, foresee the future, and so on, but the Buddha himself condemned the demonstration of such supernatural abilities, therefore, in other countries of southern Buddhism, the use of meditation for this purpose is suppressed. In turn, the practice of Burmese meditation gives rise to all kinds of superstitions and rumors, which leads to the emergence of messianic sentiments among believers and so on.

Another distinctive feature of Burmese Buddhism is the idea of ​​a direct succession of its teachings from the missionaries of Emperor Ashoka. These statements are based on the texts of the Pali canon and the edicts of Ashoka. Therefore, the Burmese from the 2nd millennium AD. NS. they are guided not only by Lanka as a repository of the Pali canon and Buddhist relics, but also by the southeastern states of India.

Burmese monks consider Sri Lanka and Burma equally strongholds of southern Buddhism, where the latter has the right to preserve and interpret the "highest truth", and Thailand is a country of primitive Buddhism. Politically, the Burmese sangha is weakly amenable to centralization and control, for individual Buddhist communities regularly lock themselves in their religious practice, thereby contributing to the disunity of Burmese villages and the emergence of local religious movements.

The rulers of the Thai states, like the Theravada communities being created, were oriented mainly towards Lanka and recognized the priority of Sri Lankan Buddhism. The largest historian of Thailand, Prince Damrong (1862-1943), in his studies of Thai Buddhism, noted the secondary nature of many of the most important religious buildings in Thailand, most of which were copies or imitations of Sri Lankan prototypes.

The specificity of Thai Buddhism is well traced in the practice of obtaining religious merit. If in Sri Lanka the accumulation of merit occurs mainly through participation in religious ceremonies and processions, as well as through pilgrimage to St. places, then in Thailand the priority of everyday contacts with the sangha, a measured way of life, consistent with the rules of Buddhist behavior, is emphasized.

Therefore, the exaltation of signals during periods of religious festivities is not characteristic of the tai. Perhaps this feature of Thai Buddhism gives rise to the relative inertia of believers in relation to the socio-political events in the country. In particular, believers in rural Thailand are familiar with Buddhist sermons about the responsibilities of the layman and homeowner, although they often have a vague idea of ​​the life of the Buddha and of the teachings of Buddhism in general.

Within the framework of Theravada, two main schools subsequently developed - Vaibhashika (Sarvastivada) and Sautrantika.

Mahayana

"Great chariot"

Mahayana Buddhism, as the 14th Dalai Lama wrote, is associated with the turning of the wheel of the Teaching for the second time, when Buddha expounded the doctrine of the absence of the self-existent existence of all phenomena. The followers of the Mahayana claimed to be the full disclosure of the original teaching.

Basic ideas. As already mentioned, the followers of Mahayana divide Buddhism into the Great Vehicle (Mahayana proper) and the Small Vehicle (Hinayana), the difference between the paths between which is that the Hinayana followers are limited only by the desire for individual enlightenment, and in a sense this division is not a gradation into schools.

The followers of Mahayana, first of all, strive to achieve the state of Buddha, not aloof nirvana, but the highest liberation - the attainment of the state of Buddha for the benefit of all living beings - the state of a bodhisattva. In accordance with this aspiration for supreme enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, they practice the five paths.

These paths are complemented by special methods, the main of which are six cultivations and four ways of converting disciples. Relying on them, the followers of Mahayana completely and forever overcome not only the obstacles of filth (samsar), but also obstacles on the path to omniscience. When both types of obstacles are overcome, Buddhahood is achieved.

There are also five paths in Mahayana:

• Accumulation path
• Applications
• Visions
• Meditations
• No-teachings-more

Eventually, Hinayana followers move on to Mahayana. Since their liberation is not yet a final achievement, they are not satisfied with it, but gradually aspire to the final achievement, follow its paths and become Buddhas.

The Bodhisattva idea was one of the main innovations of Mahayana Buddhism. The term Bodhisattva, or "Wise Being," "the soul destined to attain the highest Wisdom," was originally coined to explain the nature of the Buddha's past lives. Before his last life as Siddhartha Gautama, he worked for many lifetimes to develop the qualities of the Buddha. In these past lives, he was a bodhisattva, or "buddha in anticipation," performing acts of incredible generosity, love and compassion towards the beings around him.

The Mahayana teaching developed from the principle of intention. It was recognized that rules are important in ending negative causes, but they are not enough. If we have good intentions, everything will have good consequences. Tibetan Buddhist Teacher Jigmed Lingpa, 1729-1798, said that if we have good intentions, then the Path and the Fruit will be good; if we have a bad intention, the Path and the Fruit will also be bad. Therefore, we must develop good intentions.

In modern times, the Mahayana tradition takes a vow called the "bodhisattva vow." The Mahayana principle is called the lappa "exercise". This includes exercise for the mind, exercise in the discipline we need to organize our lives, and exercise in samadhi, or contemplation. These are the three principles in Mahayana. Therefore, Mahayana aims not only at self-control, but also at being ready to help others. The Hinayana principle is to refuse to harm and trouble others, while the Mahayana principle is to act for the benefit of others. This is the main difference.

There are two concepts in the Mahayana teachings: monpa (smon.pa.) and gyugpa (gyug.pa.). Monpa is our intention to do something, and gygpa is the action that we actually do. In The Bodhisattva's Guide to Life's Path (Bodhisattvacharyavatara), the great Master Satideva explains that the former can be compared to the intention to travel, and the latter to the fact that you actually pack your load and set off on the road.

The intention to do the practice for the benefit of others is monpa. But it’s not enough just to have a good intention. You need to get started somehow. That is why usually when people start to practice, they say that they want to realize themselves for the benefit of all other beings. This means that they are trying to achieve realization for more than their own personal benefit. Using these words becomes a kind of mental training. This is what we mean by Bodhicitta. Whether a person uses their words or not, the most important thing is to have the right intention.

The Mahayanists have invented two levels that precede the attainment of Buddhahood. While attaining Buddhahood is the ultimate goal, one can attain the Pratyeka Buddha state (single-handedly awakened), which means that he has awakened in truth, but keeps it secret. Below the level of Pratyeka-Buddha is the level of an arhat or "worthy soul" - a person who has learned the truth from others, and himself realized it.

Mahayana Buddhists made the attainment of the state of arhat a goal for all believers. The believer learns the truth, comes to the realization of the truth and then leaves for Nirvana. Through the thesis that anyone can attain the state of an arhat, this doctrine served as the basis for the Mahayana to be called the "Great Vehicle".

The goal of Mahana is to achieve the state of a bodhisattva, to give up personal salvation in order to help other sentient beings and lead them to liberation. In the Mahayana, the active principle is not the will of the individual, but the help of the bodhisattvas. And here the two main and defining qualities of a bodhisattva are Wisdom (prajna) and Compassion (karuna).

The bodhisattva path is called the "paramita path." The word "paramita" means "perfection", but in tradition it is usually interpreted in the spirit of folk etymology as "crossing to the other side"; thus, in Buddhism, paramitas are conceptualized as transcendental perfections, or "perfections that transfer to the other side of existence."

As a rule, the texts give a set of six paramitas: dana-paramita (perfection of giving), kshanti-paramita (perfection of patience), virya-paramita (perfection of diligence), sila-paramita (perfection of keeping vows), dhyana-paramita (perfection of contemplation ) and prajna-paramita (the perfection of wisdom, or wisdom, transferring to the other side of existence; transcendental wisdom). In this list, the first five paramitas belong to the group of skillful means (upaya), and the sixth paramita itself forms a whole group - the prajna (wisdom) group. The unity of all paramitas, realized as the unity of method and wisdom, is awakening, the attainment of the state of Buddha.

The Mahayanists developed a Buddha theology called the "Three Bodies" or Trikaya doctrine. Buddha was not a human being, as was stated in Theravada Buddhism, but was a manifestation of a spiritual being. This creature has three bodies. When he came to earth in the form of Siddhartha Gautama, he took the form of Magical transformation (nirmanakaya). This body was an emanation of the Body of Blessing (Sambhogakaya) that lives in the heavens in the form of a god who rules the universe.

The Body of Blessing has many forms. One of them is Amitaba, who rules our world and lives in paradise, heaven, called Sukhavati, or "Land of pure blessing." After all, the body of blessing is an emanation of the Essence Body (Dharmakaya), which is the original source of everything in the universe. This essential Body, the original cause and law of the universe, has become synonymous with Nirvana. It is approximately a universal soul, and Nirvana has become a union with this universal soul.

Currently, Mahayana Buddhism exists in two versions, which are quite different from each other: it is the Tibeto-Mongolian Mahayana (sometimes still incorrectly called "Lamaism") with canonical texts in the Tibetan language (Tibet, Mongolia, some peoples of Russia - Buryats, Kalmyks , Tuvans, the population of various regions of the Himalayas and some other places) and the Far Eastern Mahayana (based on Chinese Buddhism and with canonical texts in Chinese) - China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam.

A special place in Mahayana Buddhism is occupied by Buddhism of Nepal, more precisely, Buddhism of the Newars, one of the ethno-confessional groups of Nepalese society. The Nevars perform services in Sanskrit and honor the "nine Dharma proclamations" (nava dharma paryaya) that constitute their canon.

"Nine Dharma Declarations" are nine texts (mainly sutras) of the Mahayana, preserved in Sanskrit: Lankavatara Sutra ("Sutra of Descent to Lanka"), Ashtasahasrika prajna-paramita sutra ("Sutra of the Transcendental Wisdom in eight thousand slokas") , Dashabhumika sutra ("Sutra of the ten steps"), Gandavyuha sutra ("Sutra of a flower garland"), Saddharmapundarika sutra ("Lotus sutra"), Samadhiraja sutra ("Sutra of the royal samadhi"), Suvarnaprabhasa, golden ray Sutra Tathagataguhyaka [sutra] ("[Sutra] of the Sacraments of the Tathagata") and Lalitavistara (Mahayana version of the life of Buddha).

Within the framework of the Mahayana, two main philosophical schools subsequently developed - Madhyamaka (Shunyavada) and Yogacara (Vijnanavada, or Vijnaptimatra).

Tantrayana (Vajrayana)

"Chariot of Tantra"

At the beginning of the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. NS. in Mahayana Buddhism, a new direction, or Yana ("Chariot"), which is called Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism, is gradually being born and formed; this direction can be considered the final stage in the development of Buddhism in its homeland - in India.

The word "tantra" does not in any way characterize the specifics of this new type of Buddhism. "Tantra" (like sutra ") is simply a type of text in which there may not be anything" tantric. " "(pull, stretch) and the suffix" tra "means the basis of the fabric; that is, as in the case of the sutras, we are talking about some basic texts that serve as the basis, the core. Therefore, although the followers of Tantrism themselves speak of the" path of the sutras " (Hinayana and Mahayana) and "mantra paths", however, they prefer to call their teachings Vajrayana.

The word vajra, which is part of the name "Vajrayana", was originally used to designate the thunderous scepter of the Indian Zeus - the Vedic god Indra, but gradually its meaning changed. One of the meanings of the word "vajra" is "diamond", "adamant". Within the framework of Buddhism, the word "vajra" began to be associated, on the one hand, with the originally perfect nature of awakened consciousness, similar to an indestructible diamond, and on the other, awakening itself, enlightenment, similar to an instantaneous thunderclap or flash of lightning.

The ritual Buddhist vajra, like the ancient vajra, is a kind of scepter, symbolizing awakened consciousness, as well as karuna (compassion) and upay (skillful means) in opposition prajna - upaya (prajna and emptiness symbolize a ritual bell; the connection of the vajra and the bell in the ritually crossed hands of the priest symbolizes awakening as a result of the integration (yugannadha) of wisdom and method, emptiness and compassion. Therefore, the word Vajrayana can be translated as "Diamond Chariot", "Thunder Chariot", etc. The first translation is the most common.

The chariot of mantras (In the Tibetan tradition, the term "chariot of mantra" (mantrayana) is more common than the term "tantrayana" used in the title: these are synonyms. - Editor's note) includes four classes of tantras: action tantra (kriya), fulfillment (charya), yoga, higher yoga (anuttara yoga). The higher yoga class of tantras is superior to the lower tantras.

All the originality of the Diamond Chariot is associated with its methods (upaya), although the purpose of applying these methods is still the same - attaining the state of Buddha for the benefit of all living beings. Vajrayana claims that the main advantage of her method is its extraordinary effectiveness, "instantaneousness", which allows a person to become a Buddha in one life, and not three immeasurable (asankheya) world cycles - kalpas.

A follower of the tantric path can quickly fulfill his bodhisattva vow - to become a Buddha for the deliverance of all beings drowning in the swamp of the cyclic existence of birth and death. At the same time, the Vajrayana mentors have always emphasized that this path is also the most dangerous, like a direct ascent to the top of a mountain along a rope stretched over all mountain gorges and abysses.

Therefore, tantric texts were considered confidential, and the beginning of practice in the Vajrayana system presupposed receiving special empowerments and corresponding oral instructions and explanations from a teacher who had achieved the realization of the Path. In general, the role of a teacher, guru, in tantric practice is extremely great, and sometimes young adepts spent a lot of time and made great efforts to find a worthy mentor. Due to this intimate practice of Vajrayana, it was also called the Vehicle of the Secret Tantra, or simply the secret (esoteric) teaching.

Cosmology

Even the earliest Pali texts presented the universe as a constantly changing cyclical process. In each cycle (kalpa), four successive temporal stages (yuga) are distinguished: the creation of the world, its formation, decline and decay (pralaya), lasting many thousands of earthly years, and then repeating in the next cycle. The Universe is described as a vertical of 32 worlds, or levels of consciousness of beings residing on them: from the creatures of hell (naraka) to some inaccessible nirvanic habitats of enlightened minds in nirvana. All 32 levels of consciousness are divided into three spheres (dhatu or avacara).

The lower sphere of passions (kama-dhatu) consists of 10 levels (in some schools 11): hell, animal level, pretas (hungry spirits), human level, as well as 6 types of divine. Each of them has its own sublevels, for example, at the hell level at least 8 cold and 8 hot hells; classifications of the human level of consciousness are based on the ability to study and practice the Buddha Law.

The middle sphere is the sphere of shapes and colors (rupa-dhatu), represented by 18 heavenly worlds, inhabited by gods, saints, bodhisattvas and even buddhas. These heavens are objects of meditation (dhyana), during which adepts can visit them spiritually and receive instructions from their inhabitants.

The upper sphere outside of forms and colors (arupa-dhatu), consists of 4 nirvanic "sojourns of consciousness" available to those who have attained Enlightenment and can dwell in infinite space, in infinite consciousness, in absolute nothing and in a state outside of consciousness and outside of its absence ... These four levels are also the four types of the highest meditation that Buddha Shakyamuni mastered in the state of Enlightenment.

Cycles of cosmic cataclysms cover only 16 lower worlds (10 from the sphere of passions and 6 from rupa-dhatu). Each of them in the period of death disintegrates up to the chaos of the primary elements (earth, water, wind, fire), while the inhabitants of these worlds with their inherent level of consciousness and karma in the form of "self-shining and self-propelled" smallest "fireflies" move to the sky of light Abhasvara. (The 17th world is not subject to universal disintegration) and remain there until the restoration of cosmic and earthly conditions suitable for returning to their level. Upon their return, they undergo a long biological and socio-historical evolution before becoming what they were before the migration to Abhasvara. The driving cause of these changes (as well as of the entire cosmic cycle) is the cumulative karma of beings.

Buddhist ideas about the earthly world (horizontal cosmology of the 6 lower levels of the sphere of passions) are very mythological. In the center of the earth rises a huge four-sided Mount Meru (Sumeru), surrounded by oceans, mountain ranges with four continents (on the cardinal points) and islands behind them. The southern mainland is Jambudwipa, or Hindustan, with adjacent lands known to the ancient Indians. Below the surface of the oceans there were 7 underground and underwater worlds, the lowest of which is hell. Above the surface, on Mount Meru, deities live, on its top are the heavenly palaces of 33 Vedic gods, headed by Indra.

Buddhist Holidays

Buddhist holidays are more or less colored by the folklore of the countries where they are held. In particular, Lamaist Buddhism in Tibet and Great Chariot Buddhism in China provide numerous festivals that mix complex elements, historical or legendary, as well as those preserved from animist cults. Let us dwell only on purely Buddhist holidays, which are celebrated in all countries where this religion is widespread.

These holidays are relatively few in number, since, according to tradition, the three main events in the life of the Buddha - his birth, his illumination and his immersion in nirvana - took place on the same day.

Buddhist holidays fall on full moon days and are usually associated with the lunar calendar.

Four major holidays are celebrated throughout the year. Let's list them in chronological order:

in February - March, on the full moon of the 3rd lunar month, there is the Magha Puja holiday (literally: "the holiday of the month of Magha"), dedicated to the discovery of the principles of his teaching by the Buddha to 1205 monks;

in May, on the 15th day of the 6th lunar month, the festival of Buddha Jayanti (literally: "Buddha's anniversary"), dedicated to his birth, illumination and immersion in nirvana;

in July - September, a holiday is held to mark the beginning of Buddhist fasting. This three-month period, which usually coincides with the rainy season, is devoted to meditation, and the monks leave their monasteries only on exceptional occasions. On this holiday, the monks' relatives bring them numerous gifts. It is during this fast that the adolescents undergo their traditional "internship" at the monastery;

in October or November, the end of the fast is celebrated (the holiday is called Kathina). It is a fun celebration known for its fireworks. In Bangkok, luxuriously decorated "royal boats" float onto the river. In all monasteries, monks are given new clothing or cloth. The ceremonies include a common meal of the faithful on the territory of the temple, a procession around the pagoda and the reading of sacred texts - sutras.

Buddhism in Russia

Earlier than others, Buddhism was adopted by the Kalmyks, whose clans (belonging to the Western Mongolian, Oirat, union of tribes) migrated in the 17th century. in the Lower Volga region and the Caspian steppes, which were part of the Muscovy. In 1661, the Kalmyk Khan Puntzuk took for himself and the entire people an oath of allegiance to the Moscow Tsar and at the same time kissed the image of Buddha (Mong. Burkhan) and the book of Buddhist prayers. Even before the official recognition of Buddhism by the Mongols, the Kalmyks were well acquainted with it, since for about four centuries they had been in close contact with the Buddhist peoples of the Khitan, Tanguts, Uighurs and Tibetans. Zaya-pandit (1599-1662), the creator of the Oirat literature and writing "todo bichig" ("clear writing") based on the old Mongolian language, a translator of sutras and other texts, was also a Kalmyk. New Russian subjects arrived with their nomadic Buddhist temples on kibitk khurul; elements of ancient shamanism were preserved both in everyday rituals and in Buddhist ritual holidays Tsagan Sar, Zul, Uryus, etc. In the 18th century. there were 14 khuruls, in 1836 30 large and 46 small, in 1917 - 92, in 1936 - 3. Some of the khuruls turned into monastic complexes inhabited by Lama monasticism of three degrees: manji (novice disciples), getzul and Gaelung. Kalmyk clergy studied in Tibetan monasteries, in the 19th century. in Kalmykia, local higher theological schools of Tsannit Choore were established. Tyumenevsky was the largest khurul and Buddhist university. Followers of the Tibetan Gelug school, the Kalmyks considered the Dalai Lama their spiritual leader. In December 1943, the entire Kalmyk people were forcibly evicted to Kazakhstan, and all churches were destroyed. In 1956 he was allowed to return, but the Buddhist communities were not registered until 1988. In the 1990s, Buddhism was actively reviving, Buddhist schools for lay people were opened, books and translations into the Novokalmyk language were published, temples and monasteries were built.

Buryats (northern Mongolian clans), roaming the valleys of the rivers of Transbaikalia, already professed Tibetan-Mongolian Buddhism, when in the first half of the 17th century. Russian Cossacks and peasants arrived here. The establishment of Buddhism in Transbaikalia was facilitated by 150 Mongol-Tibetan lamas who fled in 1712 from Khalkha-Mongolia, captured by the Manchu Qing dynasty. In 1741, by the decree of Elizabeth Petrovna, Lama Navak-Puntzuk was declared chief, the lamas were exempted from taxes and taxes and received permission to preach Buddhism. In the 50s. XVIII century the oldest Buryat monastery, the Tsongolsky Datsan of seven temples, was built; its abbot in 1764 was appointed the head of the entire Lama clergy, Bandido-Khambo-Lama (from Sanskrit "pandita" scientist); this title is preserved to this day, although the high priesthood passed in 1809 to the rector of the largest in Russia Gusinoozersk datsan (founded in 1758). By 1917, 46 datsans were built in Transbaikalia (their abbots, shiretuis, were approved by the governor); Aginsky datsan became the center of Buddhist education, scholarship and culture. In 1893, there were 15 thousand lamas of various degrees (10% of the Buryat population).

Buddhism of Buryatia is professed in the Mongolian version of the Tibetan Gelug school. For her assistance to monastic Buddhism, Catherine II was numbered among the host of reincarnations of White Tara ("The Savior"), thus becoming the northernmost "living deity" of the Buddhist religion. Buryat was one of the most educated figures of Tibetan Buddhism, Aghvan Dorzhiev (1853-1938), who taught the XIII Dalai Lama (1876-1933) and headed the Renovationist movement in Buryatia and Tuva in the 1920s and 1930s. XX century; he was subsequently repressed. In the late 1930s. the datsans were closed, the lamas were sent to the GULAG. In 1946, only Ivolginsky and Aginsky datsans were allowed to open in Transbaikalia. In the 1990s. the revival of Buddhism began: about 20 datsans were restored, 6 large khurals of Buddhist holidays are solemnly celebrated: Saagalgan (New Year according to the Tibetan calendar), Duinhor (Buddha's first sermon on the teachings of Kalachakra, the Wheel of Time, and the Vajrayana), Gandan-Shunserme (birth, Enlightenment and Nir Buddha), Maidari (the day of joy to the buddha of the coming Maitreya), Lhabab-Duisen (the conception of the Buddha, who descended from the sky Tushita in the bosom of mother Maya), Zula (day of memory of Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug).

Tuvans were familiar with Buddhism long before its adoption from the Dzungars in the 18th century. (Mongolian-Tibetan version of the Gelug school, but without the institution of rebirth). In 1770, the first Samagaltai Khure monastery was erected, which consisted of 8 temples. By the twentieth century. 22 monasteries were built, in which more than 3 thousand lamas of various degrees lived; along with this there were about 2 thousand "Buddhist" worldly shamans (the functions of shamans and lamas were often combined in one person). The head of the clergy was Chamza-khambo-lama, subordinate to the Bogdo-gegen of Mongolia. By the end of the 1940s. all khure (monasteries) were closed, but the shamans continued to operate (sometimes secretly). In 1992, the 14th Dalai Lama visited Tuva, attended the festival of Buddhist revival, and ordained several young people as monks.

At present, several centers for the study of various forms of world Buddhism have been opened in Russia. Japanese schools are popular, especially the secular version of Zen Buddhism, there is a monastery (in the suburbs) of the Buddhist Order of the Lotus Sutra (Nippodzan-Mehoji), founded by Dz. Terasavoy in 1992-93 and belonging to the Nichiren school. In St. Petersburg, the society of Chinese Buddhism Fo Guang (Buddha's Light) is actively involved in educational and publishing activities, since 1991 a Tibetan temple dedicated to the Kalachakra deity has been operating (opened in 1913-15, closed in 1933). The activity is coordinated by the Central Spiritual Directorate of Buddhists.

Buddhism in modern Asian countries

In Bhutan, about a millennium ago, the Vajrayana was established in the Tibetan version: the Dalai Lama is recognized as the spiritual head, but in a cultic relation, the features of the more ancient schools of Tibet, Nyingma and Kagyu, are evident.

In Vietnam, Buddhist preachers appeared in the 3rd century. in the northern part of the country, which was part of the Han Empire. They translated the Mahayana sutras into local languages. In 580 the Indian Vinitaruchi founded the first thien school (Skt. Dhyana, Chinese. Chan), which existed in Vietnam until 1213. In the 9th and 11th centuries. the Chinese created here 2 more sub-schools of southern Ch'an Buddhism, which became the main religion of the independent state of the Vieta from the 10th century. In 1299, by the decree of the emperor of the Chan dynasty, the united school of Thien was approved, which, however, by the end of the XIV century was losing. after the fall of Chan, his supremacy, which gradually passes to amidaism and vajrayana tantrism. These trends spread in the countryside, the centers of culture and education remained the Thien monasteries, which were patronized by wealthy families and which restored their positions by the 17th-18th centuries. throughout the country. Since 1981, there has been a Vietnamese Buddhist Church, the unity in which is achieved by a skillful combination of the elite monasticism of Thien and the folk syncretism of Amidaism, Tantrism and local beliefs (for example, in the god of the earth and in the god of animals). According to statistics, approximately 75% of the Vietnamese population are Buddhists, in addition to the Mahayana, there are also supporters of Theravada (3-4%), especially among the Khmers.

In India (including Pakistan, Bangladesh and eastern Afghanistan) Buddhism has existed since about the 3rd century. BC NS. to the VIII century. n. NS. in the Indus Valley and from the V century. BC NS. to the XIII century. n. NS. in the Ganges valley; in the Himalayas did not cease to exist. In India, the main directions and schools were formed, all the texts that were included in the canons of Buddhists in other countries were created. Buddhism spread especially widely with the support of the central government in the empires of Ashoka (268-231 BC), the Kushan in the north and the Satavahans in the south of Hindustan in the II-III centuries, the Guptas (V century), Harshi (VII century .) and Palov (VIII-XI centuries). The last Buddhist monastery in the flat part of India was destroyed by Muslims in 1203. The ideological heritage of Buddhism was partly absorbed by Hinduism, in which Buddha was declared one of the avatars (earthly incarnations) of the god Vishnu.

Buddhists in India make up over 0.5% (over 4 million). These are the Himalayan peoples of Ladakh and Sikkim, Tibetan refugees, hundreds of thousands of whom have moved to India since the early 1960s. led by the Dalai Lama XIV. Special services in the revival of Indian Buddhism belong to the Maha Bodhi society, founded by the Sri Lankan monk Dharmapala (1864-1933) and restored the ancient shrines of Buddhism (primarily associated with the activities of Buddha Shakyamuni). In the year of the 2500th anniversary of Buddhism (1956), the former Minister of Justice of the central government, BR Ambedkar (1891-1956), issued an appeal to the Indians of the untouchable caste to convert to Buddhism as a non-caste religion; in just one day he managed to convert more than 500 thousand people. After his death, Ambedkar was declared a bodhisattva. The conversion process continued for several more years, the new Buddhists are attributed to the Theravada school, although there is almost no monasticism among them. The Indian government subsidizes the work of numerous Buddhist institutes and faculties at universities.

Indonesia. In 671, the Chinese Buddhist traveler I Ching (635-713), on his way to India by sea, stopped on the island of Sumatra in the kingdom of Srivijaya, where he discovered an already developed form of Hinayana monastic Buddhism and counted 1 thousand monks. Archaeological records show that both Mahayana and Vajrayana existed there. It was these directions, with the strong influence of Shaivism, that received powerful development in Java during the Shailendra dynasty in the VIII-IX centuries. One of the most magnificent stupas of Borobudur was erected here. In the XI century. students from other countries came to monasteries in Indonesia, for example, the famous Atisha studied the books of the sarvastivada of the Hinayana school in Sumatra. At the end of the XIV century. Muslims gradually drove out Buddhists and Hindus; now the country has about 2% of Buddhists (about 4 million).

Buddhism penetrated Cambodia along with the formation of the first Khmer state in the II-VI centuries. It was dominated by Mahayana with essential elements of Hinduism; in the era of the Ankhra Empire (IX-XIV centuries), this was especially manifested in the cult of the god-king and the bodhisattva in one person of the emperor. Since the XIII century. the Theravada is gaining more and more importance, eventually supplanting both Hinduism and Mahayana. In the 50-60s. XX century in Cambodia, there were about 3 thousand monasteries, temples and 55 thousand Theravada monks, most of whom were killed or expelled from the country during the reign of the Khmer Rouge in 1975-79 years. In 1989 Buddhism was declared the state religion of Cambodia, 93% of the population are Buddhists. The monasteries are divided into two sub-schools: Mahanikaya and Dhammayutika-nikaya. The Vietnamese ethnic group of Cambodia (9% of the Buddhist population) mainly follows the Mahayana.

In China from II to IX centuries. Buddhist missionaries translated sutras and treatises into Chinese. Already in the IV century. the first schools of Buddhism, hundreds of monasteries and temples appeared. In the IX century. the authorities imposed the first property and economic restrictions on the monasteries, which became the richest feudal owners of the country. Since then, Buddhism in China has no longer played a leading role, except for the periods of mass peasant uprisings. In China, a single ideological and cultic complex of three confessions (Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism) developed, each of which had its own purpose both in ritual (for example, Buddhists were engaged in funeral rituals) and in religious philosophy (preference was given to Mahayana). Scholars divide Chinese Buddhist schools into 3 types:

1. schools of Indian treatises that studied texts related to Indian Madhyamika, Yogachara and others (for example, the Sanlun-tszun school of the Three Treatises is a Chinese version of Madhyamika, founded by Kumarajiva at the beginning of the 5th century to study the works of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva;
2. the sutra school is a Chineseized version of the worship of the Word of the Buddha, while Tiantai-tszun relies on the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma-pundarika), the Pure Land school on the Sukhavati-vyuha sutras;
3. schools of meditation taught the practice of contemplation (dhyana), yoga, tantra and other methods of developing the latent abilities of the personality (Ch'an Buddhism). Chinese Buddhism is characterized by the strong influence of Taoism, the emphasis on the idea of ​​emptiness as the true nature of things, the teaching that the absolute Buddha (emptiness) can be worshiped in the forms of the conventional world, the idea of ​​instant Enlightenment in addition to the Indian teachings of gradual Enlightenment.

In the 30s. XX century in China, there were over 700 thousand Buddhist monks and thousands of monasteries and temples. In the 1950s. the Chinese Buddhist Association was created, uniting more than 100 million lay believers and 500 thousand monks. In 1966, during the "cultural revolution", all religious institutions were closed, and the monks were sent to "re-education" by physical labor. The association was reopened in 1980.

In Korea, from 372 to 527, Chinese Buddhism spread, officially recognized on the Korean Peninsula in all three states then existing; after their unification in the second half of the 7th century. Buddhism received strong support, Buddhist schools were formed (most of them are Mahayana analogues of the Chinese, with the exception of the Nalban school, which relied on the Nirvana Sutra). At the center of Korean Buddhism is the cult of bodhisattvas, especially Maitreya and Avalokiteshvara, as well as the Buddhas Shakyamuni and Amitabha. Buddhism in Korea flourished in the X-XIV centuries, when monks were included in a single system of officialdom, and monasteries became state institutions, actively participating in the political life of the country.

In the XV century. the new Confucian dynasty cut off monastic property, limited the number of monks, and then banned the construction of monasteries altogether. In the XX century. Buddhism began to revive under Japanese colonial rule. In 1908, Korean monks were allowed to marry. In South Korea in the 1960s and 90s. Buddhism is experiencing a new upsurge: half of the population considers themselves Buddhists, there are 19 Buddhist schools and their branches, thousands of monasteries, publishing houses, universities; administrative direction is exercised by a Central Council of 50 monks and nuns. The most authoritative is the Choge monastery school, formed in 1935 by combining two schools of meditation and teaching monks at Tonguk University (Seoul).

In Laos, during its independence in the 16th-17th centuries, the king banned the local religion and officially introduced Buddhism, which was two peacefully coexisting communities: Mahayana (from Vietnam, China) and Hinayana (from Cambodia, Thailand). The influence of Buddhism (especially Theravada) intensified in the colonial period of the XVIII-XX centuries. In 1928, with the participation of the French authorities, it was declared the state religion, which remains to this day: about 80% of the 4 million inhabitants of Lao are Buddhists, 2.5 thousand monasteries, temples and over 10 thousand monks.

Mongolia. During the formation in the XIII century. The Mongol Empire included states whose peoples professed Buddhism, the Chinese, Khitan, Tangut, Uighurs and Tibetans. At the courts of the Mongol khans, Buddhist teachers who competed with shamans, Muslims, Christians and Confucians won the victory. The founder of the Yuan dynasty (ruled China until 1368) Khubilai in the 70s. XIII century tried to declare Buddhism the religion of the Mongols, and Lodoi-gyaltsen (1235-80), the abbot of the monastery of the Tibetan Sakya school, was the head of the Buddhists of Tibet, Mongolia and China. However, the massive and widespread adoption of Buddhism by the Mongols took place in the 16th century, primarily thanks to the Tibetan teachers of the Gelug school: in 1576, the powerful Mongol ruler Altan Khan met with the Dalai Lama III (1543-88) and presented him with a gold seal as a sign of recognition and support. In 1589, Altan Khan's grandson was declared Dalai Lama IV (1589-1616), the spiritual head of the Buddhists of Mongolia and Tibet.

The first monastery was built in the Mongolian steppes in 1586. In the 17th-18th centuries. formed Mongolian Buddhism (the former name "Lamaism"), which included most of the autochthonous shamanistic beliefs and cults. Zaya-pandit Namkhai Jamtso (1599-1662) and others translated the sutras from Tibetan into Mongolian, Jebtszun-damba-hutukhta (1635-1723, in 1691 proclaimed the spiritual head of the Bogdo-gegen of the Eastern Mongols) with his followers created new forms of rituals. The Dalai Lama was recognized as the spiritual head of the Dzungar Khanate, formed by the Oirats and existed in 1635-1758.

At the beginning of the XX century. in sparsely populated Mongolia there were 747 monasteries and temples and about 100 thousand monks. In independent Mongolia, under the communists, almost all churches were closed, the monks were dispersed. In the 1990s. the revival of Buddhism began, the Higher School of Lamas (monks-priests) was opened, monasteries are being restored.

The first Theravadin Buddhist missionaries from India arrived in Myanmar (Burma) at the beginning of our era. In the V century. Sarvastivada and Mahayana monasteries are being built in the Ayeyarwaddy valley. By the IX century. Burmese Buddhism was formed, combining features of local beliefs, Hinduism, Mahayana cults of the bodhisattvas of Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya, Buddhist Tantrism, as well as the Theravada monastery, which received generous support in the Pagan Empire (IX-XIV centuries), built huge temple-monastic complexes. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. monasteries became part of the administrative structure of the new empire. Under British colonial rule (XIX-XX centuries), the Buddhist sangha broke up into separate communities, with gaining independence in 1948, the centralized Buddhist hierarchy, the tough monastic discipline of Theravada, was revived. In the 1990s. in Myanmar there are 9 Theravada sub-schools (the largest Tudhamma and Sweden), 25 thousand monasteries and temples, more than 250 thousand monks. The practice of temporary monasticism has been developed, when the laity enter the sangha for several months, performing all the rituals and spiritual practices; by this they "earn" merit (luna, luna), which must outweigh their sins and create "light karma" that ensures favorable reincarnation. Approximately 82% of the population is Buddhist.

Nepal. The south of modern Nepal is the birthplace of Buddha and his Shakya people. The proximity of the Indian centers of the Mahayana and Vajrayana, as well as Tibet, determined the character of Nepalese Buddhism, which has prevailed since the 7th century. The sacred texts were Sanskrit sutras, the cults of the Buddhas (Nepalese believe that they were all born in their country), bodhisattvas, especially Avalokiteshvara and Manjushri were popular. The strong influence of Hinduism affected the development of the cult of a single Buddha, Adi-Buddha. By the twentieth century. Buddhism gave way to spiritual leadership to Hinduism, which is caused partly by the migration of peoples, and partly by the fact that from the XIV century. Buddhist monks were declared the highest Hindu caste (banra), they began to marry, but continued to live and serve in monasteries, as it were, included in Hinduism.

In the 1960s. XX century refugee monks from Tibet appeared in Nepal, contributing to the revival of interest in Buddhism, the construction of new monasteries and temples. The Nevars, one of the indigenous peoples of Nepal, profess the so-called. "Newar Buddhism", in which Mahayana and Vajrayana are closely intertwined with the cults and ideas of Hinduism. The Nevars hold services in one of the largest stupas in the world, Bodhnath.

In Thailand, archaeologists date the earliest Buddhist stupas to the 2nd-3rd centuries. (erected during Indian colonization). Until the XIII century. the country was part of various Indo-Chinese empires, which were Buddhist (from the 7th century Mahayana prevailed). In the middle of the 15th century. in the kingdom of Ayutya (Siam), the Hinduized cult of the "god-king" (deva-raja), borrowed from the Khmers, was established and included in the Buddhist concept of a single Law (Dharma) of the universe. In 1782, the Chakri dynasty came to power, under which Theravada Buddhism became the state religion. Monasteries turned into centers of education and culture, monks performed the functions of priests, teachers, and often officials. In the XIX century. many schools are reduced to two: Maha-nikaya (popular, numerous) and Dhammayutika-nikaya (elite, but influential).

Currently, the monastery is the smallest administrative unit in the country, which includes from 2 to 5 villages. In the 1980s. there were 32 thousand monasteries and 400 thousand "permanent" monks (approximately 3% of the male population of the country; sometimes from 40 to 60% of men are temporarily tonsured as monks), there are a number of Buddhist universities that train senior clergy. Bangkok is the headquarters of the World Brotherhood of Buddhists.

In Taiwan, Buddhism appeared along with the Chinese settlers in the 17th century. Here, a local variety of folk Buddhism, chai-khao, was established, in which Confucianism and Taoism were assimilated. In the 1990s. Of the 11 million believers in the country, 44% (about 5 million) are Buddhists of the Chinese Mahayana schools. There are 4020 temples, dominated by the Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and Pure Land schools, which have links with the Buddhist Association of Mainland China.

In Tibet, the adoption of Indian Buddhism was a deliberate policy of the Tibetan kings of the 7th-8th centuries: prominent missionaries (Shantarakshita, Padmasambhava, Kamalashila, etc.) were invited, sutras and Buddhist treatises were translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan (Tibetan writing was created on the basis of Indian in the middle. VII century), temples were built. In 791, the first Samye monastery was opened, and King Trisong Deetsen declared Buddhism the state religion. In the first centuries, the Vajrayan Nyingma school, created by Padmasambhava, dominated. After the successful missionary work of Atisha in 1042-54. the monks began to follow the rules more strictly. Three new schools arose: Kagyutpa, Kadampa and Sakyapa (called schools of "new translations"), alternately dominating the spiritual life of Tibet. In the rivalry of schools, the Gelugpa, who grew up in the Kadampa, won; its creator Tsongkhapa (1357-1419, Mong. Tsongkhava) strengthened monastic discipline according to the Hinayana charter, introduced strict celibacy, and established the cult of the Buddha of the future Maitreya. At the school, the institute for the reincarnation of the living gods of the Tibetan religion, who were the incarnations of Buddhas, heavenly bodhisattvas, great teachers and saints of past times, was developed in detail: after the death of each of them, candidates (children 4-6 years old) were found and chosen from them (with the participation of the oracle) the next representative of this line of spiritual succession. Since the XVI century. so they began to appoint the highest hierarchs of the Gelugpas of the Dalai Lamas as reincarnations of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara; with the support of the Mongol khans, then the Sino-Manchu authorities, they actually became the rulers of autonomous Tibet. Until the 50s. XX century every family in Tibet sent at least one son to become a monk, the ratio of monasticism to laity was approximately 1: 7. Since 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama, the government and parliament of Tibet are in exile in India, with a part of the people and a majority of monks. The second spiritual hierarch of the Gelugpa school, the Panchen Lama (the incarnation of Buddha Amitabha), remained in China, and there are several monasteries of the unique Tibetan Buddhism of the synthesis of Mahayana, Vajrayana and Bon (local shamanism).

The first missionaries of the Indian king Ashoka, among whom were his son and daughter, arrived in Sri Lanka in the second half of the 3rd century. BC NS. Several temples and stupas were erected for the offshoot of the Bodhi tree and other relics they brought. At the cathedral held under King Watagamani (29-17 BC), the first Buddhist Canon of the Tipitaka of the Theravada school dominating here was recorded in the Pali language. In the III-XII centuries. the influence of the Mahayana, which the Abhayagiri-vihara monastery adhered to, was noticeable, although from the 5th century. Sinhalese kings supported only Theravada. At the end of the 5th century. Buddhaghosha worked on the island and completed editing and commenting on the Tipitaka (the day of his arrival in Lanka is a public holiday). At present, Buddhism is predominantly Sinhalese (60% of the population), there are 7,000 monasteries and temples, 20,000 Theravada monks, and, unlike the Theravada of Indochina countries, there is no practice of temporary monasticism and no emphasis on the idea of ​​accumulating "merit". There are Buddhist universities, publishing houses, the headquarters of the world Mahabodhi society (founded by Anagarika Dharmapala), youth associations of Buddhists, etc.

The first Buddhist preachers from Korea arrived in Japan in the middle of the 6th century. They received the support of the imperial court and built temples. Under Emperor Semu (724-749) Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion, a monastery was founded in every administrative region of the country, a majestic Todaiji temple with a giant gilded Buddha statue was erected in the capital, and young men went to study Buddhist sciences in China.

Most of the schools of Japanese Buddhism are descended from Chinese. They are divided into three categories:

1. Indian - this is the name of those Chinese schools that have analogs in India, for example, the earliest Japanese school Sanron-shu (625) is in many respects identical to the Chinese Sanlun-zong, which, in turn, can be considered a sub-school of Indian Madhyamika;
2. analogues of the Chinese schools of sutras and meditation, for example, Tendai-shu (from Tiantai-zong), Zen (from Ch'an), etc .;
3. generally Japanese, which have no direct predecessors in China, for example, Shingon-shu or Nichiren-shu; in these schools, Buddhist ideas and practices were combined with the mythology and rituals of the local Shinto religion (cult of spirits). Relations between her and Buddhism sometimes escalated, but mostly they coexisted peacefully, even after 1868, when Shinto was declared the state religion. Today, Shinto temples coexist with Buddhist ones, and lay believers participate in the rituals of both religions; statistically, however, most Japanese consider themselves Buddhists.

All schools and organizations are members of the All Japan Buddhist Association, the largest Zen school Soto-shu (14.7 thousand temples and 17 thousand monks) and the Amidaist Jodo-shinshu (10.4 thousand temples and 27 thousand priests). In general, Japanese Buddhism is characterized by an emphasis on the ritual and cult side of religion. Created in the twentieth century. in Japan, scientific Buddhology made a great contribution to the textology of ancient Buddhism. Since the 60s. non-Buddhist organizations (Nichiren school) actively participate in political life.