The main features of modern philosophy are truth rin. The main problems and characteristic features of modern philosophy

Main features of modern philosophy

The new era, which began in the 17th century, became the era of the establishment and gradual victory of capitalism in Western Europe as a new mode of production, an era of rapid development of science and technology. Under the influence of such exact sciences, like mechanics and mathematics, mechanism was established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.

The main theme of modern philosophy was the theme of knowledge. Two major movements emerged: empiricism and rationalism, which interpreted the sources and nature of human knowledge in different ways.

Supporters of empiricism (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke) argued that the main source of reliable knowledge about the world is human sensations and experience. This position is most thoroughly presented in the works of Bacon. Bacon was a supporter of empirical methods of knowledge (observation, experiment). He considered philosophy to be an experimental science based on observation, and its subject should be the world, including the person himself. Supporters of empiricism called for relying in everything on the data of experience and human practice.

Proponents of rationalism believed that the main source of reliable knowledge is knowledge (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz). The founder of rationalism is Descartes, the author of the expression “question everything.” He believed that in everything one should rely not on faith, but on reliable conclusions, and nothing should be accepted as the final truth.

Along with a positive assessment of the possibilities of knowledge, philosophical agnosticism, which denied the possibility of human knowledge of the world, was also revived in the 17th century. He showed himself in the works of Berkeley and Hume, who believed that man knows only the world of phenomena, but is not able to penetrate into the depths of things, to achieve knowledge of the laws of the surrounding nature.

The views of Spinoza, who argued that nature is the cause of itself and all the processes occurring in it, had a pantheistic orientation. God does not stand above nature, but is her internal cause. Knowledge is achieved by reason and it is the primary condition for free human activity. German philosopher Leibniz emphasized the spiritual nature of the world. The basis of the universe are monads, as units of being, giving the world diversity and harmony.

In the 17th century, the “legal” worldview became widespread. Within its framework, the theory of “social contract” (Hobbes, Locke) developed. She explained the origin of the state as a voluntary agreement of people in the name of their own safety. This worldview professed the idea natural rights man to freedom and property. The legal worldview expressed the sentiments of the young bourgeoisie, as a class formed in modern times.

In development social teachings In modern times in the 18th century, a special contribution was made by the French Enlightenment (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau), who ideologically prepared the French Revolution of 1789 - 1794. They perceived the church as a symbol of ignorance and obscurantism, a brake on the development of society, so Voltaire’s motto: “Crush the reptile!” became the slogan of the era, predetermining the demands for the separation of church and state. According to the conviction of the Enlighteners social progress is possible only with the help of reason, law, science and education. Man is a natural social being and is capable of endless development and improvement of his activities. But private property makes people unequal, gives rise to envy and enmity between them, therefore, a new society must be created on the basis of social equality and justice. The Enlightenmentists took a position of historical optimism, and their ideal was a republic as a form of democracy.

A significant contribution to the doctrine of the nature and essence of man, the ways of his upbringing, was made by the French Materialists of the 18th century: Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach. They believed that man is a product of his environment. Therefore, to change people's morals, it is necessary to change the circumstances of their lives. This idea of the Enlighteners was the source of the emergence Marxist philosophy.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials were used from the site http://istina.rin.ru/

Philosophy of the New Age- the period of development of philosophy in Western Europe in the 17th-18th centuries, characterized by the emergence of capitalism, the rapid development of science and technology, and the formation of an experimental and mathematical worldview. This period is sometimes called the era of the scientific revolution. Sometimes the philosophy of the New Age also includes, in whole or in part, the philosophy of the 19th century.

Key figures in the philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries fall into two main groups. Rationalists, mainly in France and Germany, assumed that all knowledge must begin with certain “innate ideas” present in the mind. The main representatives of this trend were Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz and Nicholas Malebranche. Empiricists On the contrary, they believed that knowledge should begin with sensory experience. Key figures in this movement are John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume. (The concepts of rationalism and empiricism themselves arose later, mainly due to Kant, but they are quite accurate.) Ethics and political philosophy are not usually discussed through these concepts, although all these philosophers addressed ethical issues in their own styles. Among the others important figures in political philosophy there were Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

At the end of the eighteenth century Imm

14 Empiricism of F. Bacon and rationalism of R. Descartes as the main philosophical trends of the New Age.

Francis Bacon

Main article:Francis Bacon

The first explorer of nature in modern times was English philosopher Francis Bacon(1561-1626). He is considered the founder methodology of experimental natural science. Pointed out the importance of experience in comprehending the truth. He believed that philosophy should be practical in nature, and that the highest goal of philosophy is man’s domination over nature, and “one can dominate nature only by obeying its laws.” Comprehension of the laws of nature is possible through analysis and generalization of individual manifestations, that is, based on induction. He believed that in order to comprehend the truth it is necessary to free oneself from the “ghosts” (idols) that interfere with this. The “ghost of the race” lies in man’s desire to describe the world by analogy with the life that dominates society; “ghost of the cave” - depending on your subjective preferences; “the ghost of the market” (“the ghost of the square”) - depending on the popular opinion of others; “the ghost of the theater” - in blind submission to authority. He was a deeply religious person and divided science into theology (which deals with the study of the highest, which cannot be known by the mind, but is possible only through divine revelation) and philosophy (which studies nature with the help of experience and reason).

Rene Descartes

Rene Descartes(1596-1650) - French mathematician and philosopher. If Francis Bacon considered experience as the main starting point of research, and T. Hobbes brought into this logic mathematics, then Descartes put reason at the head of everything, and considered experience only a tool that confirms the conclusions of reason. Descartes held rationalism. First introduced ideas evolution, but proved them based exclusively on mechanistic concepts.

The main starting point of his philosophy is the concept substances, here he gets closer to ancient philosophers. In this matter, he adheres to dualism, dividing substance into two types: material, infinitely divisible, which can be described by mechanical concepts, and indivisible spiritual, understandable only by man, since only he has an immortal soul. Substances have two main attributes: extension, for the material, and thinking, for the spiritual (ideal). Spiritual world a person is something innate. Descartes includes the idea of God and the foundations of mathematics and logic as innate ideas (“two quantities equal to a third are equal to each other”, “nothing comes from nothing”). He believes that God created everything that exists, but after creation he does not interfere with the natural course of history.

One of the central places of his philosophy is the problem of searching for truth and the method by which it is possible to obtain reliable knowledge. In this matter he overcame the philosophical skepticism. His famous argument on this issue is widely known, ending with the famous statement: “I think, therefore I am.”

The teaching of modern philosophers about state and law.

Philosophy of modern times.

The problem of the method of cognition.

The prerequisites for the formation of modern philosophy are associated with the transfer of the interest of thinkers from the problems of scholasticism and theology to the problems of natural philosophy. In the 17th century, the interest of philosophers was directed to questions of knowledge - F. Bacon developed the doctrine of induction, R. Descartes - the concept of method in philosophy.

The problems of epistemology come first. Two main directions: empiricism - a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge; and rationalism, which highlights the logical basis of science, recognizes reason as the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth.

At the beginning of the new European philosophy rise the figures of Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and René Descartes (1596-1650).

The philosophy of F. Bacon was a continuation of the naturalism of the Renaissance, which he at the same time freed from pantheism, mysticism and various superstitions. A continuation and at the same time its completion. The remnants of organic views were combined in her with the beginnings of the analytical method, poetry with sober rationalism, criticism with an impatient desire to embrace everything and speak out about everything. It surprisingly concentratedly embodied that last powerful surge of Renaissance culture, which gave birth to the belated, short-lived and intense English Renaissance, this bright decline of the entire Western European Renaissance, almost merging with the dawn of the coming Enlightenment. Both in his intentions and in reality, Bacon played the role of a reformer in philosophy. But it was furnished with classical decorations.

Having proclaimed a fundamentally new orientation and significance of philosophy, Bacon, in understanding, if not the tasks, then the scope of its competence, adjoined the classical ancient tradition, while at the same time giving this concept the broad meaning of scientific knowledge in general, which would long take root in Anglo-Saxon everyday life.

The new era, which began in the 17th century, became an era of approval and gradual victory in Western Europe capitalism as a new mode of production, an era of rapid development of science and technology. Under the influence of such exact sciences as mechanics and mathematics, mechanism became established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.

The main theme of modern philosophy was the theme of knowledge. Two major movements emerged: empiricism and rationalism, which interpreted the sources and nature of human knowledge in different ways.

Supporters of empiricism (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke) argued that the main source of reliable knowledge about the world is human sensations and experience. This position is most thoroughly presented in the works of Bacon. Bacon was a supporter of empirical methods of knowledge (observation, experiment). He considered philosophy to be an experimental science based on observation, and its subject should be the surrounding world, including man himself. Supporters of empiricism called for relying in everything on the data of experience and human practice.

The views of Spinoza, who argued that nature is the cause of itself and all the processes occurring in it, had a pantheistic orientation. God is not above nature, but is its internal cause. Knowledge is achieved by reason and it is the primary condition for free human activity. The German philosopher Leibniz emphasized the spiritual nature of the world. The basis of the universe are monads, as units of being, giving the world diversity and harmony.

In the 17th century, the “legal” worldview became widespread. Within its framework, the theory of “social contract” (Hobbes, Locke) developed. She explained the origin of the state as a voluntary agreement of people in the name of their own safety. This worldview professed the idea of natural human rights to freedom and property. The legal worldview expressed the sentiments of the young bourgeoisie, as a class formed in modern times.

In the development of social teachings of the New Age in the 18th century, a special contribution was made by French Enlightenment(Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau), who ideologically prepared the French Revolution of 1789 - 1794. They perceived the church as a symbol of ignorance and obscurantism, a brake on the development of society, so Voltaire’s motto: “Crush the reptile!” became the slogan of the era, predetermining the demands for the separation of church and state. According to the Enlightenment, social progress is possible only with the help of reason, law, science and education. Man is a natural social being and is capable of endless development and improvement of his activities. But private property makes people unequal, gives rise to envy and enmity between them, therefore, a new society must be created on the basis of social equality and justice. The Enlightenmentists took a position of historical optimism, and their ideal was a republic as a form of democracy.

A significant contribution to the doctrine of the nature and essence of man, the ways of his upbringing, was made by the French Materialists of the 18th century: Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach. They believed that man is a product of his environment. Therefore, to change people's morals, it is necessary to change the circumstances of their lives. This idea of the Enlightenment was the source of the emergence of Marxist philosophy.

Main features of modern philosophy

The new era, which began in the 17th century, became the era of the establishment and gradual victory of capitalism in Western Europe as a new mode of production, an era of rapid development of science and technology. Under the influence of such exact sciences as mechanics and mathematics, mechanism became established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.

The main theme of modern philosophy was the theme of knowledge. Two major movements emerged: empiricism and rationalism, which interpreted the sources and nature of human knowledge in different ways.

Supporters of empiricism (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke) argued that the main source of reliable knowledge about the world is human sensations and experience. This position is most thoroughly presented in the works of Bacon. Bacon was a supporter of empirical methods of knowledge (observation, experiment). He considered philosophy to be an experimental science based on observation, and its subject should be the surrounding world, including man himself. Supporters of empiricism called for relying in everything on the data of experience and human practice.

In the 17th century, the “legal” worldview became widespread. Within its framework, the theory of “social contract” (Hobbes, Locke) developed. She explained the origin of the state as a voluntary agreement of people in the name of their own safety. This worldview professed the idea of natural human rights to freedom and property. The legal worldview expressed the sentiments of the young bourgeoisie, as a class formed in modern times.

The French Enlightenment (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau) made a special contribution to the development of social teachings of the New Age in the 18th century, which ideologically prepared the French Revolution of 1789 - 1794. They perceived the church as a symbol of ignorance and obscurantism, a brake on the development of society, so Voltaire’s motto: “Crush the reptile!” became the slogan of the era, predetermining the demands for the separation of church and state. According to the Enlightenment, social progress is possible only with the help of reason, law, science and education. Man is a natural social being and is capable of endless development and improvement of his activities. But private property makes people unequal, gives rise to envy and enmity between them, therefore, a new society must be created on the basis of social equality and justice. The Enlightenmentists took a position of historical optimism, and their ideal was a republic as a form of democracy.

A significant contribution to the doctrine of the nature and essence of man, the ways of his upbringing, was made by the French Materialists of the 18th century: Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach. They believed that man is a product of his environment. Therefore, to change people's morals, it is necessary to change the circumstances of their lives. This idea of the Enlightenment was the source of the emergence of Marxist philosophy.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials from the site were used istina.rin.ru/

The philosophy of modern times occupies the 16th-18th, 19th centuries. This is the time of formation and formalization of many natural sciences that spun off from philosophy. Physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics and mechanics and others are turning into independent scientific branches. However, the development of general scientific methods of cognition remains a problem; there is a need to generalize and systematize the data of the natural sciences. This puts forward new tasks and determines priorities for the philosophy of the New Age. Formed philosophy of science. In the center new philosophy- theory of knowledge, processing methods true knowledge for all sciences. If specific “private” sciences must reveal the laws of nature, then philosophy is called upon to reveal the laws of thinking that operate in all sciences. Such famous thinkers as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, D. Locke, G. Leibniz and others are engaged in this. They are looking for the laws of reason, whose possibilities are unlimited. However, the mind is real life“clouded”, “darkened” by certain false ideas and concepts - “idols”. The idea of “pure reason” arises, i.e. a mind free from “idols” that penetrates into the essence of phenomena. They are actively looking for the true, main method of cognition, which will lead to eternal, complete, absolute truth. The basis of the new method is sought in sensory experience (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke), or in the intellect, which is not reduced to human experience(Descartes, Leibniz, Malebranche, Spinoza). In any case, rationalism and analytical methods applied to all areas of reality triumph. This direction is usually called “mechanism” and “metaphysics”.

Unlike the Renaissance, a number of specific problems and attitudes appear in the philosophy of the New Age.

1. Complete secularization of science. The synthesis of science with religion, faith with reason is impossible. No authorities (antiquity, etc.) are recognized except the authority of reason itself.

2. Promotion of science to the rank of the most important activity of humanity. It is science that can enrich humanity, save it from troubles and suffering, raise society to a new stage of development, and ensure social progress.

3. The development of sciences and man’s final subordination of nature is possible when the main method of thinking is formed, the method of “pure” reason, capable of operating in all sciences. The theory of knowledge becomes the center of modern philosophy. Of course, other problems of philosophy do not disappear, but develop further. Including problems related to religion, morality, human problems, etc. But they are being pushed to the periphery.

In the 17th century, the enlightenment-modernist philosophical paradigm was determined, and faith in the unlimited possibilities of the mind was formed. In the New Time, in contrast to antiquity and the Middle Ages, a new idea of science was formed. Science began to be pursued for practical purposes. There was a desire to understand nature. Nature began to be understood as a practical being and therefore natural science became the main science. There is a “cleansing” of philosophy from humanism and an orientation toward knowledge of objective nature, comprehension and generalization of the results of science, and the affirmation of philosophical materialism.

A feature of the science of the New Time is, on the one hand, reliance on experimental knowledge as a means of achieving truth, free from authorities and dogmas, and, on the other hand, the success of mathematics. Mechanics (the science of the movement of bodies observed directly or with the help of instruments) became the leader of natural science among the sciences.

A mechanical and metaphysical picture of the world is formed. From the perspective of this picture of the world, all natural phenomena (machines created by the Creator) are interpreted. In this picture of the world, the role of God is reduced to a minimum - the creation of matter and its initial impulse. Further, the development of the world is subject to the laws of cause and effect.

The development of science encourages philosophers to constantly coordinate their ideas with the achievements of science. Philosophy adopts the style of thinking, ideals, and values from natural science. Emphasis of 17th century philosophers - on methodological problems. Cognition is seen as a mirror of reality in the human mind. The mind is assigned the role of an outside observer.

17th century - time for criticism Medieval scholasticism. The most ardent critic of scholasticism is Rene Descartes. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes argued that it is possible to build a reliable edifice of true philosophy only by relying on experimental natural science. It was they who laid the foundation of empiricism (the source of knowledge is in experience). Empiricism is characterized by the interaction of two sources of knowledge - human senses and the mind. Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Leibniz saw in mathematics a manifestation of “natural light” human mind who is able to penetrate any secret and comprehend the truth.