Family archive. Monophysitism and Monothelitism

Nestorianism- Christological doctrine traditionally attributed to Nestorius, Archbishop of Constantinople (428-431) and condemned as heresy at the Byzantine Council of Ephesus in 431. The only Christian church professing this Christology is the Assyrian Church of the East, thus representing a distinctive Christian denomination.

Actually, the creed that Nestorius adhered to was not created by himself, but is in fact the teaching of the Antiochian theological school, to which he belonged. Antiochian Christology was developed in the works of Nestorius' predecessors and teachers - Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (IV century). The main theological principle of Nestorianism is that it recognizes the complete symmetry of the divine-humanity of Christ: in the single divine-human face of Christ, from the moment of conception, two hypostases (two natures) of God and man are inextricably united. Will in Nestorianism, in contrast to Chalcedonian Orthodoxy and Catholicism, is considered a property of a person, not a nature, and not a property of a hypostasis, as in ancient Eastern Orthodoxy. Therefore, Nestorianism recognizes one divine-human will of Christ, complex, consisting of two concordant wills, Divine and human. At the same time, as in the Chalcedonian churches, the actions in Christ differ - some actions of Christ (birth from Mary, suffering, death on the cross) are attributed by Nestorianism to his humanity, others (working miracles) - to the Divinity.

Since, according to Nestorianism, the birth from Mary relates only to the human hypostasis of Christ, and not to the divine hypostasis, the term “Mother of God” in Nestorianism is considered theologically incorrect and permissible only with reservations. Nestorianism especially emphasizes the importance of the exploits of Christ as a man. Before baptism on the Jordan, Christ, as an ordinary, albeit righteous, person perfectly fulfills the Jewish law, during baptism he receives the grace of the Holy Spirit, is transfigured on Mount Tabor, through suffering and death on the cross fulfills perfect obedience to God, after which he is resurrected by the power of God, which becomes victory over death, the main consequence of the Fall of Adam.

Monophysitism(from Greek μόνος - “one, only” + Greek φύσις - “nature, nature”) - a Christological doctrine in Christianity that arose in the 5th century and postulates the presence of only one Divine nature (nature) in Jesus Christ and rejects His perfect humanity . That is, contrary to Orthodox teaching, Monophysitism professes that Christ is God, but not a man (His human appearance is supposedly only illusory, deceptive). However, the term “Monophysitism” itself has been found in literature only since the end of the 7th century.

Monophysitism arose as the teaching of the extreme radical wing of the followers of St. Cyril of Alexandria, who at the Third Ecumenical Council condemned Nestorianism - the Dyophysite heresy, according to which two independent Hypostases of God and Man were recognized in Christ. Fighting against the two-subject Christology of Nestorius, Saint Cyril insisted on the miaphysite Christological formula of Athanasius the Great - “μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη” (One nature of God the Word incarnate) emphasizing that by “μία φύσις” is meant the unity of the two perfect natures of God and man, united in a single Hypostasis.

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Subject of dogmatic theology. Levels of theology. Tasks of theology

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Subject of dogmatic theology. Levels of theology. Tasks of theology
Dogmatics is a section of theology that provides a systematic presentation of dogmas (positions, doctrinal truths) accepted by the entire Orthodox Church. The term "Dogma" has a dochris

The purpose, objectives and methodology of dogmatic theology as a science. The concept of a dogmatic system
The task of dogmatic science is to serve the unity of man with God, to introduce man to eternity. The second, no less important, tactical task of dogmatic science is a purely historical task, tasks

The concept of Sacred Tradition. Levels of Sacred Tradition. Forms of Sacred Tradition
Concepts about Sacred Tradition: a) the mechanism for transmitting revealed truth in all forms; b) as a source of doctrine, c) as a testimony of the universal church about the truth handed to it (in this sense,

Holy Scripture as a form of Holy Tradition. The Completeness of New Testament Revelation and the Development of Dogmatic Science
Divine Revelation is “that which God Himself revealed to men, so that they could rightly and savingly believe in him and worthily honor him.” It is from Divine Revelation that everything is drawn

The concept of knowledge of God. Natural and supernatural knowledge of God
For Orthodox Christians, the fullness of knowledge of God is possible in Christ due to the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son. In Christ, Revelation is not fragmentary, but complete, because Christ is not just the One who knows about God, but God Himself,

Disputes about the nature and boundaries of knowledge of God in the 4th and 14th centuries
IV century: For the first time in Christian theology, the question of the nature and boundaries of knowledge of God was raised in the context of the Trinitarian disputes of the IV century. In 356 A spoke in Alexandria

Apophatic theology. Basic apophatic properties of God
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Cataphatic theology. Two groups of cataphatic properties
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Philosophical ideas about the impersonal God. Strict monotheism. Their differences from the Christian understanding of God as the Holy Trinity
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Holy Scripture about the unity and trinity of Persons in God. Holy Scripture on the Divine Dignity of the Persons of the Holy Trinity
TRINITY: Bereshit bara elohim...Gen. 1:26: “And God said: Let us make man in our image and after our likeness.” Life 8:22: “And God said, Behold, Adam has become like one of

Derogatory passages" of Holy Scripture. Proper names and hypostatic properties of the Persons of the Most Holy Trinity in the Holy Scriptures
The derogatory passages are mainly interpreted as the relationship of God the Father to the Son as a man. For example, a person cannot completely know the future, so Jesus could not know when the end will come. First everything

The doctrine of the Most Holy Trinity of St. Athanasius the Great. First Ecumenical Council. Arianism. The doctrine of the consubstantiality of Divine Persons
The doctrine of Arius can be reduced to the following basic principles: 1. The absoluteness of the Father's monarchy. “There was a time when the Son did not exist,” argued Arius. 2. Soz

Basic theological terms - nature, essence, energy, hypostasis, person in the doctrine of the Holy Trinity
Nature (Greek φύσις - “nature, nature”) - 1. In the broadest sense of the word, it means everything that exists objectively, regardless of our consciousness: “nature

The mode of action of the Persons of the Holy Trinity in relation to the created world
The Holy Trinity can be contemplated in Itself, which, according to the terminology of the Fathers, is in the proper sense of the word “theology.” But She can also be contemplated in Her relation to created things: this is the realm of “economi.”

The concept of God's providence. Actions and types of Divine providence. Images of Divine providence for the world. False teachings about providence
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Angels. Their nature, goals of existence and ways to achieve them. The fall of evil spirits and their activities in the world. God's providence regarding evil spirits
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The primordial state of man. The priestly, prophetic and royal calling of man. Commandments
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The Fall and its consequences. The essence of sin. The concept of original sin
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The doctrine of the Lord Jesus Christ as true God and true man. The difference between the Lord Jesus Christ as a man and the descendants of Adam
The gospel gospel is the gospel of the Son of God who came down from heaven and came to earth, incarnate and made man. Faith in Jesus Christ - that He is the Son of God - represents a stronghold

Docetism. Its essence, varieties and inconsistency. Apollinarianism
In the history of theological thought, there have been heresies associated with the denial or specific understanding of the human nature of Christ. One of the earliest Christological heresies to appear

Monoenergism and monophilitism. Their essence and failure
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The doctrine of the hypostatic union of two natures in Christ. The Hypostasis of Jesus Christ as the Hypostasis of the Word. The concept of hypostatic
Hypostatic [Greek. ἐνυπόστατον, ἐνυποστατικό

Consequences from the doctrine of the hypostatic union of two natures in Jesus Christ in relation to Himself
One and the same Person of God the Word can be called both God and man. In this case, human properties are attributed to Christ as God. For example, “They crucified the Lord of glory” (1 Cor. 2:8).

Consequences from the doctrine of the hypostatic union of two natures in Jesus Christ in relation to the Holy Trinity
It was the Second Person of the Trinity who became incarnate: St. The apostle and evangelist John the Theologian says: “The Word became flesh” (John 1:14). Not the Deity, but the Word. The Word in the Theological Language of St. John

Consequences from the doctrine of the hypostatic union of two natures in Jesus Christ in relation to the Most Holy Theotokos
The Virgin Mary is called the Mother of God (Theotokos in Greek). This name is a consequence of the doctrine of the hypostatic unity of natures in Christ and the communion of properties, communicatio idiomatum. TO

The concepts of redemption, salvation and deification. Biblical and patristic images of redemption
In St. The Scriptures speak of salvation in two ways. Let us quote two quotes from the Apostle Paul: “You have been saved, and this not of yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8). Here about

Legal theory of the Atonement
The father of this theory is the Western scholastic Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109). It cannot be said that he created his theory from scratch, for the tendency to interpret the mystery of the Redemption in legal terms

Moral Theory of the Atonement
A reaction to the extremes of legal theory was the so-called moral theory of the Atonement. This name itself arose relatively recently; Professor Kazansky was the first to introduce it into use

Organic theory
In the 20th century, awareness of the limitations of both the legal and moral theories of the Atonement led some theologians to directly turn to the patristic heritage, on the basis of which

Unity of the Church
The ecclesiological consciousness of a modern Christian is Christocentric. In modern theological literature the Church is spoken of mainly as the Body of Christ, everything else is usually forgotten,

Holiness of the Church
Holiness is one of the properties of the Divine nature. Holiness as a property of God means that God is pure from sin and cannot sin, loves good in creatures and hates evil, and determines His aspirations

Sobornost, or catholicity of the Church
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Apostleship of the Church
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The concept of the sacraments. The validity and efficacy of the sacraments. The difference between sacraments and rituals
The word “Sacrament” (Greek...) has several meanings. Firstly, Holy Scripture assimilates to him a deep, hidden thought or action (1 Cor. 13:2). Secondly, it denotes a special action P

The Sacrament of the Eucharist. Its establishment. The offering of bread and wine in the sacrament of the Eucharist. The Sacrament of the Eucharist as the Sacrament of Sacraments
The sacrament of the Eucharist was established by the Lord Jesus Christ at the Last Supper (Matthew 26:26-28, Luke 22:19-20). As a pre-establishment of the sacrament, one can point to the words of the Savior

The Sacraments of Baptism and Confirmation. Their prototypes, establishment, visible sacred rites and invisible grace-filled side
The crossing of the Red Sea, the true liberation of Israel from Egyptian slavery, foreshadows first of all the liberation accomplished by Baptism: Finally, we find a type of Baptism in the crossing

Apostles
The risen Lord speaks about the apostolic ministry during his appearance to His disciples in Galilee: “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all things.

Bishops
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Elders
In the primacy of the Church, the elders, as can be seen from St. The Scriptures were put into service either by the apostles (Acts 14:23) or by bishops, as follows from 1 and 2 Tim. and Titus. In almost all books

Deacons
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Sacraments of Repentance and Blessing of Unction. Their prototypes, establishment, visible sacred rites and invisible grace-filled side
In Old Testament history, myrrh was used by Moses to consecrate the tabernacle, Aaron was anointed with myrrh, the high priests and prophets were anointed to enter into the service of the Lord. The first ancient composition of m

Along with Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism, the main directions of Christianity also include Nestorianism and Monophysitism. They are called "non-Chalcedonian", or "ancient eastern churches".

Nestorianism arose in beginning of the 5th century Its founder is an Antiochian monk Nestorius(?–451), who occupied in 428–431. See of the Patriarch of Constantinople. According to the doctrine of Nestorius, Christ was not the Son of God. He was born from an earthly woman as a man, only then received his divine gift from God the Father, and the original human and divine natures were united in him. Nestorius called the Virgin Mary not “Theotokos,” but “Christ Mother,” which was the reason for the condemnation of the patriarch. At the Third Ecumenical Council in Ephesus in 431, he was declared a heretic, deprived of his bishopric and sent into exile. Nevertheless, the ideas of the heresiarch became widespread among Christians - Assyrians, and at the end of the 5th century. An independent Nestorian patriarchate was established in Persia.

Nestorianism recognizes the authority of only the first two Ecumenical Councils. The sacraments of the Nestorians are baptism, priesthood, communion, anointing, repentance, as well as the “holy leaven” and “sign of the cross” that are unique to them. The sacrament of “holy leaven” is based on the legend that a piece of bread distributed at the Last Supper by Jesus Christ was brought by the Apostle Thaddeus (Judas) to the East, to Mesopotamia, and a piece of it is constantly present when preparing the elements of the sacrament. The Old Syriac language is used in worship; the decoration of the temples is devoid of icons and statues. The positions of priests are hereditary. The clergy is not celibate and can marry after ordination.

Nestorianism is represented by the Assyrian Church of the East. It is headed by the Patriarch-Catholicos of the entire East, and this position is hereditary. Since 1976, the patriarch has been Mar Dinkha IV, with residences in Tehran and Illinois. Now the church is experiencing a state of schism, its other center is Baghdad (Patriarch Mar Addai). The number of Nestorians is about 200 thousand people, living mainly in Iraq, Syria, Iran, and India. In parallel with the Assyrian Church of the East, on the same territory there is the Chaldean Catholic Church, which separated from it and is in union with the Vatican.

Monophysitism(from the Greek monos - unique and physis - nature) arose in beginning of the 5th century in Byzantium. Its founder is considered to be the abbot of one of the Constantinople monasteries Eutyches(c. 379-454), who taught that Christ has only one, divine nature. This doctrine was diametrically opposed to the views of Nestorius, in whose condemnation Eutyches took a very active part. At the IV Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451, both Nestorianism and Monophysitism were recognized as heretical. According to Eutyches, at first the two natures of Christ existed separately - God and man, but as a result of the incarnation, human nature was completely absorbed by the divine. Subsequently, supporters of Monophysitism could also either completely deny any human element in Christ, or argued that the human and the divine were united in Christ into some kind of separate, special essence. Monophysites recognize the decisions of the first three Ecumenical Councils. Their cult practice is close to Orthodox ritual.

The number of Monophysites is about 36 million people. There are those who call themselves Orthodox: the Ethiopian Church (more than 20 million believers), the Coptic Church (Egypt, about 8 million Copts), the Eritrean Church, the Syrian Jacobite Church, the Syrian Malankara Church (India), the Armenian Apostolic Church, etc. In different periods, separate groups of Monophysites entered into a union with the Catholic Church, as a result of which Ethiopian-, Copto-, Syro-, Syro-Malankara and Armenian Catholics appeared.

TO Armenian Apostolic Church belongs to the absolute majority of the population of Armenia and a significant part of the Armenian diaspora (in the USA, Russia, Georgia, France, Syria, etc.), totaling about 5 million people. The followers of this church call themselves Armenian-Gregorians, which is derived from the name of its founder - Gregory the Illuminator(240-332). Under the influence of Grigor, King Tiridates III 301 not only himself accepted Christianity, but also declared the new religion to be the state religion. Thus, Armenia became the world's first Christian state. In the 5th century The Bible was translated into Armenian, and since 506 there has been an independent Armenian-Gregorian Church. The world center of the Armenian-Gregorians is the Etchmiadzin Monastery (Republic of Armenia), where the residence of the Supreme Patriarch-Catholicos of all Armenians is located (since 1986 - Karekin I). Since 2003, the community of the Armenian Apostolic Church has been active in Belarus.

During this era of the final triumph of Christianity over paganism, internal strife occurred within Christianity itself, caused by unequal understanding of the dogmas of faith. Even in the first centuries, churches appeared heresies, that is, deviations from its accepted teachings or correct understanding of the truths of religion (Orthodoxy). In the 4th century. became especially important Arianism- heresy of Arius, an Alexandrian priest who was a contemporary of Constantine the Great. Arius denied the consubstantiality of the Son of God with God the Father and argued that the Son of God is only the first and most perfect creation of God, but not God. His interpretation found numerous followers, and discord between the Orthodox and Arians troubled the church for a very long time. Although the heresy of Arius was condemned first ecumenical council, collected by Emperor Constantine in Nicaea 325 and composed the Creed, but in the second half of the 4th century. The emperors themselves (Constantius and Valens) stood for Arianism, who even sought to bring it triumph in the empire. This gave rise to new unrest in the church. On the other side, The conversion of the Germans to Christianity began with their adoption of Arianism.Visigoths, who already in the first half of the 4th century. had his own bishop ( Ulfila), professed Arianism; The Lombards were also Arians. Both of them remained Arians even after they occupied Gaul, Spain and Italy.

17. Ecumenical councils

In the IV – VI centuries. Other heresies also arose in the church, which forced the emperors to convene new ecumenical councils. These heresies appeared and spread mainly in the Greek half of the empire, where there was a great inclination towards posing and resolving abstract questions of faith. But in the Eastern Empire there was also more active development of Orthodox teaching. Ecumenical councils also met here. Second Council was convened by Theodosius the Great in Constantinople (381) regarding the teaching Macedonia, who denied the divine nature of the Holy Spirit. Third Council was in Ephesus(431) under Theodosius II; he condemned heresy Nestoria ( Nestorianism) , who called Jesus Christ not the God-Man, but the God-Bearer, and the Holy Virgin - the Christ Mother, and not the Mother of God. Refuting this teaching, one Constantinople archimandrite, Eutyches, began to assert that in Jesus Christ it is necessary to recognize only one divine nature, and not two (divine and human). This heresy was called Monophysitism and spread very widely. Her defenders even won over Emperor Theodosius II to their side, but the new emperor (Marcian) convened against her fourth ecumenical council V Chalcedon(451). Disputes and strife caused by the emergence of Nestorianism and Monophysitism continued at the beginning of the 6th century, which forced Justinian the Great to convene Constantinoplefifth ecumenical council(553). However, this council also failed to restore peace in the church. In the first half of the 7th century. some bishops advised the emperor Irakli to persuade the Orthodox and Monophysites to reconcile on the middle teaching, according to which in Jesus Christ one should recognize two natures, but one will. But this is a doctrine called heresy monothelites, Not only did it not lead to reconciliation, but it brought new turmoil into the church. In 680-681, therefore, in Constantinople was convened sixth council, who condemned the Monothelite heresy.

HERESY(Greek hairesis, “choice”), an opinion at odds with the teachings of the church; in a broader sense, beliefs that deviate from generally accepted ones.

In the New Testament and the early church fathers the term was used to denote membership in a sect; Thus, the Apostle Paul said about himself: “I lived as a Pharisee according to the strictest teaching (hairesis) in our religion” (Acts 26:5). However, it soon acquired a different meaning and, starting with the letters of Ignatius of Antioch to the Trallians and Ephesians (c. 108), it began to be used to denote religious dissent. During the era of Jerome (342–420), the term became established as a designation for a group of Christians who broke away from the church due to their adherence to one or another unorthodox doctrine, in contrast to the term schism (schism), which implied separation from the church due to refusal to submit to a certain hierarchical authority.

Since apostolic times, the Church has claimed to be the sole guardian of the doctrine it received from Christ, and has condemned what it regarded as deviations from Christian orthodoxy. From the end of the apostolic era to the beginning of the 3rd century. no less than 40 sects, usually bearing the name of their founder and spiritual leader, were branded as heretical. Irenaeus of Lyons in his essay Against heresies(c. 180) names at least 15 such sects (mostly of the Gnostic persuasion).

In Galatians, Paul wrote, “If anyone preaches any gospel to you other than what you have received, let him be accursed” (1:9). Sharing the church's concern for preserving the purity of doctrine, the church fathers were far from being lenient towards heretics. Polycarp of Smyrna called Marcion “the spawn of the devil.” Ignatius of Antioch saw heretics as poisonous plants or animals in human form. Justin and Tertullian believed that the teachings of the heretics were instilled in them by the enemy of the human race. Theophilus of Antioch compared them to barren and rocky islands on which ships are broken, and Origen said that they were like sea robbers lighting fires on the rocks to lure ships seeking a safe harbor to them. Subsequently, the harshness of expressions softened somewhat, but in general the attitude towards heresies remained the same and was officially enshrined in the decrees of many councils. The expression "anathema sit" appears to have been first applied to heretics at the Council of Elvira (in Spain) in 300–306 and became a common formula used at all ecumenical councils, for example in the condemnation of Arius at I Council of Nicaea (325), Nestorius - at the Council of Ephesus (351), Eutyches - at the Council of Chalcedon (451) and iconoclasts - at the II Council of Nicaea (787).

In the Roman Catholic Church, the term “heresy” acquired a very specific meaning, fixed in canon law: “a heretic is anyone who, after receiving Baptism and remaining a Christian in name, boldly denies or questions any of the truths that are proper to be believed in accordance with with divine and Catholic faith" (Canon 1325, § 2). Thus, in order to formally qualify a certain teaching as heresy, four conditions must be present. First, previous receipt of actual baptism (not necessarily in the Catholic Church). Secondly, a declaration of one’s unchangeable membership in the Christian faith, since otherwise the person would be considered an apostate. Thirdly, denial or doubt of a certain truth, which is already recognized by the Catholic Church as revealed by God. Fourthly, the moral reprehensibility of expressed unbelief, associated with the fact that someone who calls himself a Christian refuses to accept Christian dogma.

Therefore, in order to become a heretic in the strict and canonical sense and to be excommunicated from the community of believers, a person must objectively deny or question the truth, which is not simply proclaimed by the church, but is based on the word of God, proclaimed by God in the Bible or in Sacred Tradition. Subjectively, this person must recognize his obligation to believe in the truths of Revelation. If he is conscientiously mistaken, as happens with those who were brought up in a non-Christian (or non-Catholic) environment, then this is just a “material” heresy, implying neither moral guilt nor sin against faith, although it excludes a person from church fellowship.

However, in a number of other Christian denominations, the concept of heresy has a different, more descriptive than legal meaning, since in these denominations there is no recognition of church authority that would have the right to make a final judgment on controversial doctrinal issues. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term "heresy" is used in a broader sense to refer to all dogmatic positions that diverge from the doctrine adopted by the first seven ecumenical councils (i.e., the councils before the Second Council of Nicaea). In Protestantism (at an early stage of its development in Europe and America), the concept of heresy played a major role in the formation of individual churches. Doctrines such as absolute predestination and ceremonial issues such as infant baptism were considered orthodox or heretical depending on theological orientation, and differences in these assessments often led to the emergence of new denominations. In addition, secular rulers were often given the power to protect their subjects from erroneous teachings. As a duty to the secular authorities, in accordance with Westminster Confession of Faith, it was charged to take measures so that “unity and peace are preserved in the Church, so that divine truth is preserved in its purity and completeness, and so that all sacrilege and heresies are eradicated.” Presbyterians and some other Protestants are still of the opinion that heretical views are sufficient grounds for removing a person from the performance of pastoral duties.

In modern Protestantism, only radical and “zealously propagated” heresy can serve as a basis for serious measures to be taken against a person performing pastoral duties. The measure of faith in these cases is the Bible, and the norm of orthodoxy, in the spirit of J. Wesley, is broadly understood Christianity. Wesley said: “We believe that Christ is the eternal and supreme Good. But with regard to all opinions that do not affect the foundations of Christianity, we reflect and allow reflection.” Typically, for a heresy to be officially prohibited, it must “shake the foundations of religion,” such as agnosticism or atheism. See also CHURCH CATHEDRAL; THE INQUISITION.

MONOPHYSITISM(from Greek monos, one; and physis, nature), a movement in early Christianity based on the belief that Christ had only one nature. The Monophysites recognized that Christ, the Son of God, assumed human nature, but the latter was absorbed by his Divinity, so that the nature of Christ should be considered as a divine nature, however, possessing human properties. Opponents of Monophysitism considered such an interpretation of the human nature of Christ unacceptable.

Monophysitism took shape as an independent movement immediately after the Council of Constantinople (381). Two diametrically opposed movements arose within the Christian church, one emphasizing the “humanity” of Christ and his subordination to the Father, and the other emphasizing the divinity of Christ and his equality with the Father. Since Christianity had already become the state religion by this time, this dispute acquired not only theological, but also political significance. The Monophysite heresy was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon (451), where it was proclaimed that Christ is the one and only Son of God, “perfect in Divinity and perfect in humanity,” “true God and true man... of rational soul and body, consubstantial with the Father in Divinity and consubstantial with us in humanity.” He is “one and the same Christ” and “only begotten Son,” “in two natures unfused, untransformed, inseparable, inseparable. At the same time, the difference of natures does not disappear through the connection, but the peculiarity of each nature is even more preserved.” Nevertheless, Monophysitism survived in the Coptic, Armenian and Jacobite churches.

Nestorianism - Christian teaching (heretical, from an orthodox point of view) long attributed to Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople V 428 -431 , before that he was a priest in Antioch (Syria), it later turned out that he was innocent.

Nestorian teaching

Nestorianism supposedly denied the mystical Christian concept "god-man". According to Nestorianism, virgin mary gave birth to a man who subsequently, overcoming human weakness, rose to become the Son of God ( Messiah); V Christ the human and divine principles are only in relative union, never completely merging (while orthodox dogma emphasized the unity of the human and the divine).

The creed that he adhered to Nestorius, as well as creed Assyrian Church of the East. In fact, it is the teaching of the Antiochian theological school. Developed in the works of Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (IV century).

Nestorianism recognizes the complete symmetry of the divine-humanity of Christ: in the single divine-human person (personality) of Christ, from the moment of conception, two hypostases (individual natures) and two (common) natures (divine and human) are inextricably united. Will, in contrast to Orthodoxy, is considered a property of a person, and not of nature, therefore one divine-human will of Christ is recognized. Nestorianism attributes some of Christ’s actions (birth from Mary, suffering, death on the cross) to his human hypostasis, others (working miracles) to the divine.

Since the birth from Mary relates only to the human hypostasis and to the divine-human person of Christ, but not to the divine hypostasis, the term "Mother of God" considers Nestorianism to be theologically incorrect and acceptable only with reservations. Nestorianism affirms the importance for the salvation of people of the entire earthly life of Christ, and not just his death on the cross and resurrection, although it recognizes the culminating significance of the latter. The importance of the exploits of Christ as a man is especially emphasized.

Before baptism on the Jordan, Christ as a man perfectly fulfills the Jewish law, during baptism he receives the grace of the Holy Spirit, is transfigured on Mount Tabor, through suffering and death on the cross fulfills perfect obedience to God, after which he is resurrected by the power of God, which becomes victory over death, the main consequence fall from grace Adam.

Opposition to the teaching

Nestorius's main opponent was Alexandrian bishop Kirill, leaning on monasticism and rural population Egypt, Palestine, Asia Minor. Unlike Nestorius, Cyril recognized the personality of Christ as purely divine, and not divine-human, and insisted on the need for the term “Mother of God.”

The fate of the teaching

IN 431 on Ecumenical Council in Ephesus, Nestorius was anathematized, his teaching was condemned, and then in 449 damned ( Ephesus robbery). The Antioch delegation, which met separately, declared his opponent Nestorius, Cyril, a heretic, the dispute was resolved by the emperor Theodosius II, who approved the resolution of the Alexandrian delegation. Finally anathema Nestorians was pronounced at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 . They could get rid of repression only by renouncing their teachings, which they refused to do even in the face of persecution. Most of the Nestorians went to Persia and joined Churches of the East, also adhered to the Antiochene theological tradition.

In the pre-Mongol era, Nestorianism was widespread among Turkic peoples of Central Asia. IN 635 Nestorianism penetrated into China, the first emperors of the Tang dynasty, Gaozong and Taizong, patronized the Nestorians and allowed them to build churches. IN 1256 -1261 Mongols and nomadic tribes subordinate to them, professing Nestorianism, led by a khan Hulagu, committed crusade in the middle east.

Currently, there are followers of Nestorianism in Iran, Iraq, Syria, India(on Malabar coast).

Arianism

General Information

Arianism was a 4th century Christian heresy named for Arius (c.250-c.336), a priest in Alexandria. Arius denied the Full Deity of the preexistent Son of God who became Incarnate in Jesus Christ. He carried it out by the Son, while the Most High and like God ("from like substance"), God was created as the messenger through whom he created the universe. Arius spoke of the Son, “there was a time when he was not; Arianism became so extensive in the Christian Church and ended by such a lack of unity that Emperor Constantine convened a church council at Nike in 325 (see Councils of Nike).

Led by Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, the Council condemned Arianism and declared that the Son was Consubstantial (of the same substance or being) and Co-origin with the Father, a belief formulated as homoousios ("of one substance") against the Arian position of homoiousios ( "from similar substance"). However, the conflict continued, helped by the conflicting policies of the Empire after the death of Constantine (337).

Three types of Arianism emerged: radical Arianism, who asserted that the Son was "dissimilar" to the Father; homoeanism, Who held that the Son was like the Father; And Semi-Aryanism,, which shaded from Orthodoxy and held that the Son was similar yet different from the Father.

After the initial victory of the homoean side in 357, the Half-Arians joined the ranks of Orthodoxy, which was finally victorious except in Teutonic Christianity, where Arianism survived until the end of the conversion (496) of the Franks. Although much of the controversy over Arianism appears to be a battle According to (Edward Gibbon contemptuously observed that Christianity breaks down over a single iota, the difference between homoousios and homoiousios), the fundamental issue involving the integrity of the gospel was at stake: whether God was really in Christ reconciling the world to himself.

Question 3

Feofan the Greek

In the mid-12th century the Novgorod Republic became an independent state. The Novgorodians escaped the general devastation that the Russian lands suffered during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Against the backdrop of a general catastrophe, N. not only managed to take account, but also increased his wealth. The city was divided into 15 “ends” - districts, which, like individual streets, competed with each other in building churches and decorating them with frescoes. It is known that from the 10th century. By 1240, 125 churches were built in Novgorod. By special invitation, Theophanes the Greek (1340-1410), a remarkable Byzantine painter, arrived there. According to the testimony of the ancient Russian church writer Epiphanius the Wise, FG painted more than 40 churches outside of Rus' before his appearance in Novgorod. Later - in Moscow and decorated the palaces of the princely nobility with paintings. But by a whim of fate, the only example of the great master’s work has been preserved - the frescoes of the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street, completed in 1378. FG arrived in Novgorod as an already established master, and was the last representative of Byzantine metropolitan art in the history of Russian monumental painting. FG's gift for painting was distinguished by a rare combination of passionate temperament with a truly monumental scope. His contemporaries were amazed by his deep intelligence and education, which became his fame as a sage and philosopher. The FG worldview developed in the 50-60s. 14th century, when a deep renewal of spiritual life took place in Byzantium on the basis of the doctrine of “Divine illumination”, according to the cat, the only God radiates Divine energy or light, deifying the soul of a righteous person.

FG's personality was so unique that he could not accept hesychast ideas without reworking and enriching them. In the picturesque ensemble of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, he modified the traditional system of painting the temple. In the image of Pantocrator in the dome of the temple, the master emphasized the enormous divine power that comes from the powerful figure of the face and gaze of Christ.

Ticket 22

Question 1

Animism

Animism (from Latin anima, animus - soul, spirit), one of the early forms of religion, is the belief in the existence of souls and spirits, i.e. fantastic, supernatural, supersensible images that in the religious consciousness are represented as acting in all things dead and alive nature as agents who control all objects and phenomena of the material world, including humans. If the soul seems to be associated with any individual being or object, then the spirit is credited with independent existence, a wide sphere of activity and the ability to influence various objects. Souls and spirits are sometimes presented as amorphous, sometimes phytomorphic, sometimes zoomorphic, sometimes anthropomorphic creatures; however, they are always endowed with consciousness, will and other human properties. Before this, they believed in the animation of all nature (animalism, from the word “anima” - animation). Animism is inherent in religions in the early and late stages of development. Its essence is personification (for example, the personification of the forest, diseases, forces of nature). The basis of animism is the transference of one’s own inner life to the outside world (associated with the emergence of society, even at an early stage - a horde). They believed in the spirits of the wind, sun, month and other natural phenomena. Most spirits were considered harmful (for example, the spirit of water - seasickness, eats drowned people). Ancestor cult is the veneration of the spirits of deceased ancestors. Various funeral rites appeared. The concept of the relationship between the souls of dead and living people. The emergence of family cemeteries. It was believed that the correct burial depended on whether the spirit of the deceased person would help or, on the contrary, hinder relatives. People were afraid of dying suddenly, for example, from predators - it would be difficult to bury them, which meant the possibility of not connecting with heaven.

There were pure ancestors and unclean ones (suicides, drowned people, etc.). The unclean were buried separately, they were feared (hence the belief in ghouls and vampires). Agrarian cult - holidays, rituals for agricultural activities: fertilizing the land, collecting and preserving crops.

Druids are the priests of the Celtic peoples, the privileged elite of the Celtic tribes. Their authority was very great. They made sacrifices (“barbaric” cult). In recent times, this cult of the Druids began to be considered philosophical and great. But this is a misconception. The Celts believed in gods, elves, fairies, etc., as well as in the transmigration of souls. Tales about fairies and sorcerers remained in England, France, and Ireland.

Question 2

Nikon's reforms and the origins of the schism

10. Nestorianism: a brief history and the essence of heresy

A serious stage in the development of Christology was the Nestorian controversy, which began in the late 20s of the 5th century. Archbishop Nestorius of Constantinople (381-451) was a student of the Antiochian theological school, whose Christology mainly developed as the antithesis of Apollinarianism. The Antiochian school was always characterized by an interest in specific historical reality, and special attention was paid to historical image of Christ, the way He appears in the Gospel. Particular emphasis in Christology was placed on the fullness of human nature in Christ, while the perfection of the Savior’s human nature was emphasized with such force that humanity was often viewed as a kind of independent, separate person, similar to us in everything, who is only connected to the Divine by some external grace-filled connection. These ideas are especially clearly manifested in Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia (360-428). Nestorius was a student of Theodore and preached his theology.

The Troubles began in the winter of 428-429. Presbyter Anastasius, at a sermon in Constantinople, spoke out against the term Mother of God (Qeoto/koj), since the Virgin Mary did not give birth to God, but to a man, calling on the Virgin Mary to be called the Mother of Man (a¹nqrwpoto/koj). This caused the indignation of the people. Nestorius in his sermons repeated the opinion expressed by Anastasius. True, without rejecting the term Man-bearer proposed by Anastasius, Nestorius recognized it as incomplete. Instead, he proposed a more complete name - Christ Mother of God. According to Nestorius, the idea that Christ was God from conception would be better denoted by the word Receiver of God (Qeodo/xoj). After all, every mother gives birth only to a body, and a soul from God, therefore a simple mother cannot be called a soul-bearer. Outside of dogmatic reasoning, that is, in liturgical use, Nestorius allowed the term Mother of God.

St. Cyril of Alexandria immediately receives news from Constantinople and responds to them with a series of messages against the doctrine preached by Nestorius. Cyril and Nestorius exchange messages. In August 430, the teachings of Nestorius were condemned at the Roman Local Council, headed by Pope Celestine. On November 30, 430, the message of the Council of Alexandria (= third Cyril) to Nestorius with anathematisms was handed to Nestorius. On December 6 and 7, Nestorius preaches sermons, repeating his teachings. June 431 - the beginning of the Council of Ephesus, chaired by Cyril, and the alternative council of the “Easterns,” chaired by John of Antioch.

The main creator of Antiochian Christology was not Nestorius, but Theodore of Mopsuestia. Theodore did not accept the Alexandrian paradigm Word is flesh and followed a different paradigm, of which he was largely the author. This paradigm is most widespread among the followers of the Antiochian theological tradition and is defined in modern science as Word-man (Λόγος-ἄνθρωπος ). The main premise of this paradigm is fullness of humanity in Christ.

For Theodore, this fullness means, first of all, the active manifestation of humanity in Christ. He does not accept the Apollinarian concept of Christ's passive and subordinate humanity to the deity, devoid of his own actions and will. At the same time, however, he fully shares the Apollinarian idea of nature as an active being, filled with its own and “self-propelled” dynamics. What Apollinaris attributed only to the deity of Christ, Theodore extends to humanity. Thus, the humanity of Christ for Theodore has with your own life and energy. By developing this concept further and achieving “ anthropological maximalism", according to Fr. George Florovsky, Theodore comes to the conclusion that in Christ two natures coexist, having each its own specific private existence. In other words, divinity and humanity are present in Christ to the same degree—symmetrically.

Having endowed the humanity of Christ with its own energy, life and private being, Theodore thereby significantly increased the distance between him and the deity in comparison with the Alexandrian paradigm Word is flesh. The increase in this distance was also greatly facilitated by the fact that, polemicizing with the Arians, he in every possible way emphasizes the transcendence of deity in Christ and his ontological distance from created humanity.

Both of these factors—the maximum possible fullness of humanity and the transcendence of divinity—posed to Theodore the difficult question of how humanity and divinity are united and how Christ remains one being. Theodore found a solution to this issue in the concept relative connection(ἕνωσιςσχετική) deity and humanity by good pleasure(ἕνωσιςκατ’ εὐδοκίαν). He contrasted this connection with the connection in essence. Connected by good pleasure, the natures of Christ acquired a single common face, action and will.

Concept faces (πρόσωπον ) is of decisive importance in Theodore's Christology, since it allows him to preserve the unity of Christ despite the distance of the two natures from each other. Theodore explains what he meant by face in his treatise against Eunomius: “Face has a double meaning: it means either hypostasis and what each of us is, or it refers to honor, majesty and worship. For example, "Paul" and "Peter" signify the hypostasis and person of each of them, but the face of our Lord Christ signifies honor, majesty and worship." Thus, Theodore admitted that πρόσωπον synonymous ὑπόστασις and means concrete being. However, when applied to Christ, the term “face” has a completely different meaning for Theodore: one honor, majesty and worship of the two natures of Christ, as well as the manner in which God is manifested and revealed through humanity. The same unifying role is played in Theodore’s Christology by the single action and single will of Christ. It should be noted that the presence of a common face (face of union - pro/swpone¸nw/sewj), a common action and a common will in Christ does not at all abolish the own persons, wills and actions of the two natures, which without them would lose their completeness. Natures, each having its own face (= hypostasis), energy and will, are united by a common and united face, energy and will.

In other words, Christ appears before us in the Gospel as a single Person is only subjective, in relation to an external observer, He is a single Being, a single Person, but within Himself He contains two persons - Divine and human. Thus, it turned out that the Son of God and the Son of Mary are separated, between them there is only a moral connection, similar to the one that existed between God and the Old Testament righteous, and, therefore, the path to real deification is still closed for man.

Feodorov's concept of the face as a common dynamic manifestation of God and man in one Christ is close to Apollinari's. Moreover, for Theodore she plays an even more important role, since only thanks to her can Theodore preserve the unity of Christ. For Apollinaris, unity is determined primarily by a single nature.

To explain the image of the union of two natures in Christ, representatives of the Antiochian school used various examples and images, sometimes very ridiculous. Theodore of Mopsuestia has an image according to which Divinity and humanity in Christ are united like the union of husband and wife into one flesh. In Nestorius, the main image is the image of a house or temple, meaning the person in whom God dwells. Anyway this is unity turns out to be external, it is the unity of power, honor, strength or goodwill.