The Old Believers are priestless. Basic Old Believer rumors
T.A.Voskresenskaya
NOVGOROD OLD BELIEVERS-NON-SPOPOVTS: ESCHATOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF WORLD PERSPECTIVE AND LIFE
Humanitarian Institute NovSU
The influence of the eschatological perception on the everyday culture of Old Believers is shown. The criteria, defining the behavior of the Old Believer in everyday life, are analyzed.
Eschatology is recognized as one of the leading components of Christianity. The Old Believers, although they do not create a “harmonious eschatological system,” represent “an eschatological variety of Orthodoxy.” As M.O. Shakhov, a researcher of the Old Believer worldview, defined, “eschatological expectations are the most important element of the Old Believer worldview.”
After the reforms carried out by Patriarch Nikon, the traditionalist consciousness logically inevitably drew a conclusion from two premises: a) the spiritual hierarchy produced a distortion of the forms of God-worship, leading to a severance of communication with the supernatural, to the loss of Divine grace; b) the loss of the true church hierarchy is possible only at the final stage of world history, with the accession of the Antichrist, therefore, the fall of the last stronghold of Orthodoxy, Muscovite Rus', marks the coming of the Antichrist to the world.
The orientation of the priestless people towards the coming of the Antichrist into the world, supplemented by the conviction of the onset of a “sacred” state of the Church (i.e. without secrets and priesthood), led them to the need to search for new forms of organizing their lives as true bearers of faith in the new conditions of the last times, which found a strong expression in everyday life.
Many researchers of the Old Believers talk about the influence of the eschatological worldview on all spheres of the everyday culture of the Old Believers. The author of this study sets himself the task of considering this influence using the example of the Novgorod Old Believers-bespopovtsy. Until now, researchers and public figures We paid special attention to the consideration of the system of communication with God created by the Old Believers, but we will try to illuminate the daily life of the Old Believers without priests, in particular the principles of their communication, interaction with non-Popovites, and analyze the criteria that determine their behavior.
According to M.O. Shakhov, “the isolationism of Old Belief is a completely adequate reaction of the traditional Orthodox consciousness when confronted with a society of other faiths and is based on the rules and laws collected in the Helmsman’s Book, which require “non-communication” with heretics.” In order not to succumb to temptation, the Old Believers tried to deal with apostates Christian faith, who were considered “much greater sinners than the pagans”, stop friendship, sharing meals and all
communication . Following, as they believed, the behest of St. Joseph of Volotsky, who echoed St. John Chrysostom, the Old Believers strictly observed the ban on communication with Gentiles in food, drink, friendship, and love. This ban was supplemented strict ban for joint prayer with heretics, established by the 45th Rule of the Holy Apostles.
There were stories among the Old Believers, from which it was clear that any relationship with people of other faiths could entail punishment. According to one of the stories, because the Old Believers and the Nikonians ate from the same cup, “the Lord punished them: he threw them into the icy lake, hitting them with severe frost.” Only for the alms they do during their lifetime does He allow them to warm up at night in the cell of an Old Believer elder, who was once abbot, and has now retired to the desert near Soltsy.
Any contact with representatives outside world- “worldly” - makes the Old Believer himself “worldly” or “worldly” (defiled), that is, deprives him of the necessary spiritual level of ritual purity. “Pacification” among the Old Believers is considered a very serious sin; the return of the disobedient person to the community as a full member is associated with the need to ask for forgiveness from other members of the community and perform penance, which could include up to 40 prayers with the Jesus Prayer and bows.
The society of Novgorod Old Believers-Bespo-Povtsy, like any other society of guardians of ancient piety, is heterogeneous. This division is based on the qualitative characteristics of communication with a world that has fallen away from Christ. Each category is distinguished according to the main criterion - the degree of “worldliness”. In their midst, the Old Believers identify “slaves”; sometimes they could be called simply “Christians” or “big slaves”. To avoid corruption, every devout Old Believer, which is what a slave is, must have with him, especially if he goes on a journey or in the company of Orthodox Christians, his own cup and spoon, so as not to use Orthodox utensils under any circumstances. This practice is called “holding your own cup.” Your cup had to be blessed by a mentor, after which it could be used. In addition, the slaves prayed to God together with their mentor, since they were “worthy, supplicating” people (i.e., they fulfilled the commandments of God, including fasting, the ban on visiting Nikonian churches and communicating with non-believers). Most often, these qualities were possessed by older people.
Another category is “manure-bearing” as they were called in the Krestetsky district, or “sietnye” - in the Starorussky district, or “vain” - this name is mentioned by an informant from the Poddorsky district. The Sietnye, as described by informants, were much younger in age, were married, communicated with people of other faiths in some way, and therefore they were forbidden to pray with everyone else during public worship.
To identify co-religionists who had the closest relations with the apostate world, or those of other faiths, the term “secular” or simply “church” was used. If this term was used to define an Old Believer, then in this version this concept is similar to the concept of a secular one, i.e., worldly meant Old Believers who were married, “have not been to bows” (i.e., have not confessed this year), “those “that they are weaker among the Old Believers,” for which they did not pray with everyone during the service and did not have the right to take a “slave cup.”
This division was reinforced by the presence in each house of separate cups (utensils) for representatives of each group. “And before they had three cups: worldly, manure and slave.” They were stored in different places and washed separately.
Such a status hierarchical ladder was mobile. There was an opportunity to increase one’s status within the Old Believer society. Some informants mention the custom on Easter for all Old Believers to become slaves and receive grace from a mentor. To do this it was necessary: 1) wash the cup after praying; 2) go to bows during Great Lent (i.e., confess); 3) pray 40 ladders; 4) to be a slave at home.
In everyday life, as materials from ethnographic studies of the life of Novgorod Old Believers-bespopovtsy show, all of the above prohibitions were strictly observed. So, if at the wake (and other forms of joint communication were strictly limited) non-believers or the worldly were present, then the owners, referring to the words of the Apostle Paul (1 Cor. 5:11), set two tables: separately for slaves and separately for the worldly or worldly. . When performing funeral prayers Gentiles were forbidden to even cross themselves.
According to data from the second half of the 19th century, the Old Believers of the Fedoseyev Consent, known for their strictness, considered food bought in shops from non-believers to be defiled, and therefore purified it with prayer before consumption. In an article from 1873 about the Old Russian Old Believers of the town of Gorodtsy, the ritual of purification is described as follows: the householder sat opposite the bench on a chair (like a rocking chair), rocked, moved over the ladder, and bowed to the bench. The quality of the food was characterized by the number of bows. The largest number of bows is necessary to purify sugar and salt. A little less - for salted and fresh fish, they did not bow for fresh food. According to F. Pardalotsky, the Krestets Fedoseevites had to make one hundred bows before lunch to cleanse the food they bought.
sold to the Orthodox. In addition, he mentions the presence of special wells in the ovens of the Krestetsky Fedoseevites “to consecrate the food being prepared with grace.”
Going on the road, the Old Believer took with him everything necessary to maintain his “purity” - an icon, his cup, his food (“Our parents, for example, where they go on the road, they go with their food, with their bread and drink.” ).
Old Believers have a ban on visiting Nikonian churches. An exception could only concern the younger generation, whose representatives, against the will of their parents, “out of curiosity,” went to see Christian churches, but for such an action they later asked forgiveness from their spiritual father. The ban on praying together with Nikonians was strictly observed.
Along with the secular cup, in some Old Believers’ houses one could find so-called “secular” icons, that is, icons not covered with a curtain, left especially for those coming from the world. The icons to which the owners themselves prayed were carefully hidden from prying eyes. In the home of the Orthodox, an Old Believer should “baptize his eyes, but not say a prayer” at other people’s icons. If representatives of different faiths lived in the same family (for example, the husband was Orthodox and the wife was an Old Believer), according to one of the informants, they each kept their icons in a separate corner, hiding them from the eyes of a relative of a different faith.
The ban on marriage with people of other faiths became a guarantee that a single faith was preserved within the clan, family (in the broad sense). Marriage not according to faith in the Old Believer environment threatened to be rejected from the family. Marriages between representatives of different faiths occurred, but subject to a change of religion. Otherwise, the new family member was “like a cut-off piece” (informants explained: in the house “everyone eats from one cup, and she eats separately from the man”). Subject to this prohibition, the communication of the Old Believer was limited to his family and his community - the circle of fellow believers.
A sign of the division of the world was the presence on the doors of the Old Believers (this practice has regional restrictions) of two brackets (handles) - for the worldly and for the Old Believers.
Despite all its isolation, the Old Believer society was open to accepting new members. Preaching aimed at converting heretics was strongly encouraged: “whoever converts a sinner from his false path will save the soul from death and cover a multitude of sins” (James 5:20). The custom of baptism of adults who came from the world (and in some non-priestly senses, those who came from other consents) is described by many informants.
Like all Christians, Old Believers have the salvation of the soul as their main goal. This problem is becoming especially relevant in recent times, since it is impossible to save the true Church without caring for one’s own soul. “Even if you prop up your body against a hedge, your darling will be tormented in that very moment.”
you have to answer for everything.” The Bespopovites had to create their own system of serving the Lord, since they were deprived of the opportunity to receive grace through the Church. A person, according to the Old Believers, can do almost anything, even in the days of the coming of the Antichrist, if he does it “with God’s help and with prayer,” if he “seeks spiritually with feat and zeal.” An Old Believer tries to live his life in such a way as to earn the grace of God.
The Old Believer begins every business, every day with an appeal to God (“crossing his eyes with Christ”) and ends with an appeal to God. Prayer accompanies the Old Believer throughout his entire life. Parents taught their children: “Every day you need to pray for yourself. When you die, you can no longer pray for yourself. There you will only pray for your living people.” He prays, rising from sleep, setting off on the road, before and after meals, and before going to bed, he gives thanks for every day he has lived. He begins every holiday, every Sunday with public prayer and devotes it to the Lord, abstaining from work and everyday worries.
One of the indicators of the strictness of the Old Believer faith is the keeping of fasts. For Old Believers, fasting is a mandatory condition of the Christian faith. Old Believers strictly observe four basic Christian fasting. In addition, every week the Old Believers especially honor Wednesday and Friday with fasting, thereby remembering the betrayal of Judas and the suffering of Christ. Some Old Believers mention eating food on these days only once. Others insist that these days “you are limited not in how much you eat, but in what,” and therefore they ate several times a day, but exclusively lean food. Some informants mention the tradition of fasting three times a week. “They say Wednesday and Friday are the first meeting. Friday and Wednesday will greet you when you die. And Monday is always cherished.” On Monday, only those who made a covenant fasted, that is, they found themselves in a difficult life situation and expected help in resolving it from God, and therefore took upon themselves some obligations regarding limiting their diet. It should be noted that in the Old Believer environment, children begin to fast very early.
In a similar way, by relating to God in all his deeds, observing fasts, the Old Believer fulfilled the first commandment of love given by Jesus Christ himself - the commandment of love for God. In everyday life, the Old Believer tries, like a true Christian, to implement His second commandment - the commandment to love one’s neighbor. It was ideal for an Old Believer to follow a simple formula in everyday practice: “We must pray to Christ more and do good.” “When a good deed is accomplished, they say, the Angel himself smiles,” and intercedes for its creators.
Only one good deed done can change the fate of a person after his death - direct him from hell to heaven. Even a harlot can go to heaven only for “doing one piece of good news.”
They said that if you do good to people, you will go to heaven: “maybe you won’t get into the middle, but you’ll end up on the edge.”
The Old Believer tried to help everyone who needed help. I didn’t forget the saying: “Give for Christ’s sake - God will send.” Different regions had their own customs related to alms. Some gave directly on the street, others invited those begging into the house, and others, in some unfavorable life situations, themselves distributed alms to their fellow believers. At the same time, the so-called “secret alms” was especially valued, such that “the right hand would give, but the left would not know.” They also gave alms in case of an accident with livestock, in case of illness, after death loved one(“If you don’t give alms, he’ll dream about it. If you’re naked, barefoot, you need to give him clothes. Here you give him, and there they’ll put shoes on him and dress him.”)
An unworthy attitude towards other people was considered a sin. Physical violence against other people is sinful. Taking a person’s life was considered even more sinful. Killing a person was not without consequences for the killer. Informants note that in the next world he will have to answer both for his sins and for the sins of the person he killed. Although forgiveness even for this terrible sin is possible, if, of course, you repent. Abortion is considered an unforgiven sin. That’s why “you can’t answer the whole universe for him.” They said: “even if a hundred people pray for this, you still won’t be able to pray for it.”
It was considered sinful to violate material assets: be it land (“seizing land is an unforgiven sin”) or a house (“to set fire to someone else’s house”) or cattle (“poisoning cattle is an unforgivable sin”).
It was not only the deeds a person did that influenced his life. The meaning of a word spoken out loud is also very great. Every word can be heard and turned against a person. “Just think: “Oh, I won’t live, I’ll hang myself.” And for ten years the unclean spirit follows you from behind: “You gave (or gave) your word.” Why don’t you keep it, why don’t you fulfill it?” It will take you forty years to walk until you choke to death.”
The curse (especially from the mother’s lips) had irreparable consequences. An envious word can even kill a person.
Discussing and judging other people, as well as lying and cursing, is also considered a sin and is punished by burning in hell. You cannot discuss other people, judge them. “We cannot judge, that is why God is the Judge.” The Old Believers warned: “If you lie and talk a lot, and talk in vain, they will hang you by the tongue” in the next world.
Old Believers, especially women, do not use swear words. The worst curse, according to informants, is “to the mother” ( mother of god you remember) and “in God”, you should not remember the unclean. Swearing at livestock is unacceptable. “Neither a cat, nor a chicken, you can’t call anyone, everything was created by Christ!” The father-in-law just poured out
milk only because the daughter-in-law, when milking, called the cow “infection”: “You can’t drink milk from infection!” A bad word, a curse, can lead to the fact that the cattle can get “on the wrong track” (i.e., get lost in the forest).
Old Believers also have a special attitude towards the choice of words spoken at a meeting and at farewell. Instead of “Goodbye,” they say “in God’s way”: “Forgive me for God’s sake.” To which the others respond: “God will forgive you and bless you.” It is also necessary to give thanks “in God’s way.” Old Believers-
Bespopovtsy usually say “God save,” and the Novgorod Old Believers-priests thank them with the phrase “Christ save.”
Christians consider fornication to be a sin. In the everyday practice of Old Believers intimate relationships even between husband and wife they were considered not completely pure. After every night with her husband, the woman had to be doused from head to toe with water either in the house or in the stable. Old Believers abstained from intimate relationships between spouses during fasting, on the eve of holidays (before public prayers).
Old Believers avoided excessive consumption of intoxicating drinks. It is impossible to talk about their complete ban. Women did not drink at all, but men were allowed indulgences in holidays. However, according to the charter of the Old Believers, six weeks of fasting and three thousand bows were imposed for the abuse of intoxicating drinks (for drunkenness). One of the reasons for the deliberate restriction of the use of intoxicating drinks by the Old Believers is, in particular, the awareness that under their influence one loses control over oneself, and at this time one can commit even the most serious sin.
A ban was imposed on dancing in the everyday life of the Old Believer. However, informants admit that Old Believers also danced. Especially young people. But if they did this, then they realized that for this sin they would be punished: “you will dance on a hot frying pan in the next world” or “on hot nails”, or “they will make you dance on coals.”
In addition to the ban on dancing, among the Old Believers there was a ban on secular entertainment (hippodrome, opera, theater, etc.), including music. Although it should be noted that the Old Believers could not completely live without music in their lives. First, music was an important part of worship. Secondly, there was such a genre of musical work as spiritual verse. Spiritual poems were often sung in prayer; they were an important component of the life of an Old Believer during Lent. In the villages you can still find handwritten collections of spiritual poems. As an exception to the rule, Old Believers allow the use of “secular songs,” especially among young people attending village holidays.
Some Old Believers are wary of science, especially those branches of science whose achievements clearly contradict the religious picture of the world.
They prefer to do without the help of doctors when they are ill. Firstly, fearing appeasement, since many doctors are of other faiths, secondly, in their opinion, now there are no “divine doctors about whom Sirach speaks (38, 1-15), but all are heretics”, thirdly , believe that “every disease from the Throne of God, from His will, is sent to test people” or as punishment. One way or another, recovery from illness depends only on the grace of the Creator, and you must achieve it yourself. Some Old Believers believe that being sick is bad in this world, but for the next century it is a useful activity. After all, “when you are sick, you work for your sins.” Therefore, when approaching a patient, they say: “God help you work.” According to the observations of researchers of the 19th century, while Old Believers (especially wealthy ones in cities) took external medicines from doctors, albeit reluctantly, they did not take internal ones at all. The Old Believers condemned surgical intervention. They explain it this way: “He who is cut is the same as a Jew who is circumcised; he will not enter the Kingdom of Heaven.” There was a particularly negative attitude towards anatomists who dissected the bodies of the dead.
In case of illness, Old Believers usually resort to reading the canons to some saint, who is credited with the power to heal known ailments. They can give a covenant - how many times to pray or fast. So in the village. Lyakov made a covenant and according to it they walked (about 100 km) to Novgorod to venerate St. Varlaam of Khutyn. They often resorted to alms. As an exception (very rare, according to data from the 19th century, collected by opponents of the Old Belief), the Old Believers also resorted to the help of sorcerers, and also used traditional medicine.
Smoking tobacco was considered forbidden among the Old Believers. Even if an Old Believer smoked, that is, “did not obey the law” (according to the law this is a sin), he never did it at home or in a prayer house; smoking near a water well was also prohibited. The maintenance of such a practice was facilitated by stories about the origin of tobacco that existed among the Old Believers. According to them, tobacco grew from the remains of a prodigal black woman (or, according to other sources, a maiden) thanks to a “fornicating demon.”
If the Old Believers accepted food from their opponents, the Nikonians, through purification by bowing, they rejected food delivered from pagans who did not revere the Christian God. Old Believers tried to exclude tea, coffee, sugar, potatoes and yeast from their diet.
Secular fashion could penetrate into the life of an Old Believer, but following it was associated with the need to bear spiritual punishment, and the scope of its application was clearly limited to everyday life. When turning to God (whether it was public prayer or home prayer), Old Believers preferred to dress in modest clothes of an old cut.
Thus, the study of the everyday life of the Novgorod Old Believers-bespopovtsy allows us to confirm
to believe that the eschatological sentiments that formed the basis of the worldview of the Old Believers had a direct impact on everyday life, justifying, in particular, the ban on communication with a world that had departed from Christ, the ban on everyday innovations, asserting the need for asceticism in worldly life.
1. Kerov V.V. Eschatology of the Old Believers of the late XVII - first half of the XVII centuries and the new economic ethics of the old faith // Old Believers in Russia (XVII - XX centuries): Collection. scientific tr. Vol. 3 / State ist. museum; resp. ed. and comp. E.M.Yukhimenko. M.: Languages Slavic culture, 2004. P.410, 405.
2. Shakhov M.O. Old Believer worldview: Religious and philosophical foundations and social position. M.: RAGS, 2002. P.193.
3. Shakhov M.O. Philosophical aspects Old Belief. M.: Publishing house. House "Third Rome", 1997. P.98.
4. Ibid. P.103.
5. Ibid. P.105.
7. Psalmist D. G-ev. About schismatic corruption in eating and drinking // Tobolsk Diocese. statements. 1889. No. 6. P.123.
8. Archive of the educational and scientific laboratory of ethnology and cultural history of NovSU. Materials of ethno-cultural expeditions.
9. N. Notes on the life and everyday life of the schismatics of the town of Gorodets, Starorussky district // Novgorod Provincial Gazette (NGV). 1873. No. 2. P.7.
10. Pardalotsky F. Punishment for unbelief and conversion from schism to Orthodoxy // NGV. 1873, No. 43. S.5.
11. Kerov V.V. Decree. Op. P.421.
13. Barsanuphius, hieromonk. Old Believers without priests, convicted of the wrongness of their faith in their own prayer room. Novgorod, provincial printing house, 1902. 23 p.
14. St. V. A few words about schismatics in the Starorussky district // NGV. 1869. No. 25. P. 183.
15. Nilsky I.A. The views of schismatics on some of our customs and orders of life in the church, state, public and home. St. Petersburg, 1863. P.63.
16. Ibid. P.42-43.
Popovtsy and non-popovtsy
Two main directions in Old Believer sectarianism. They differ in the presence or absence of priests.
I I would have believed in God, but the crowd of intermediaries would confuse me.
E. Ivanitsky
In the 17th–18th centuries, events of a grandiose scale took place in Russia. Social foundations, laws, and the political system are changing. The reforms of Peter I significantly changed Russia. To a large extent this also applies to the church. She was completely subordinated to autocratic power.
But this was only the second shock of the Russian Orthodox Church. The first was a schism at the end of the 17th century, associated with the innovations of Patriarch Nikon. The split brought to life the phenomenon of sectarianism, which was not so widespread in Russia. Since then, Christianity in Russia has had thousands of faces.
The reforms carried out by Nikon consisted of correcting numerous inaccuracies that had previously been made when translating religious books from Greek. These corrections, as a rule, were not significant. For example, the name of the son of God began to be written “Jesus” instead of “Isus”. There were also some changes in rituals - the duration was reduced church services, the veneration of a six-pointed cross was introduced (before that, an eight-pointed one was venerated), people began to cross themselves with three, rather than two, fingers.
However, these differences in themselves could hardly have caused such a powerful opposition movement as the schismatics became. Representatives of various strata and classes took part in the schism - influential nobles, churchmen and serfs. There was a struggle against the strengthening of the central state (and therefore church) power on the one hand and a struggle against the strengthening of economic and social oppression on the other. The schism was headed by Archpriest Avvakum - a difficult, extraordinary man and fanatically devoted to the idea.
At the council of 1666, Nikon's reforms were finally approved, and the schismatics were anathematized.
Thus, if Western European sects, as a rule, advocated the renewal of religion, Russian sectarians represented a somewhat paradoxical movement - they were conservatives in matters of faith, but often democrats in essence. Thus, the slogan of the old faith was put forward by Stepan Razin, Kondraty Bulavin and Emelyan Pugachev.
Due to the fact that the Old Believers were represented by feudal lords, officials, priests, merchants, peasants, soldiers, etc., it quickly broke up into hundreds of small or large formations. This was also facilitated by the geographical factor. Sectarians were not always able to contact their “comrades in struggle.”
We can talk about two main directions in the Old Believers - priestly and non-priestly. The name itself speaks for itself. The priestly branch includes those sects that recognized the need for clergy to perform sacraments and rituals. The priests were richer and more well-born, and after a while they were ready to make contact with the official Orthodox Church and the state.
Among the Bespopovites there were many more peasants. Their spiritual affairs were in charge of the laity, and they sometimes waged a very cruel struggle with the state, and especially with the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC).
As already mentioned, the priests were the closest to Orthodoxy among the Old Believers. Representatives of commercial and industrial capital found themselves here, seeking a compromise with the church and state.
Initially, priesthood developed in the form of “beglopopovshchina.” The priests here were former ministers of the Russian Orthodox Church, who fled from Nikon's persecution, then simply priests who were not satisfied with their financial or official position in the Russian Orthodox Church. It was not difficult for them to adapt to the schismatic order. After all, initially the differences in rituals between the Old Believers and the Nikonians were extremely insignificant. The centers of Beglopopovshchina were Vetka in the Mogilev province, Starodubye in the Chernigov region and the Volga tributary Kerzhenets.
By the end of the 17th century, there were about 100 Beglopopov monasteries. The Beglopopov sects had their own church hierarchy (the same as in official Orthodoxy). The services were performed in the church and differed in some details - two-fingered addition for sign of the cross, a special hallelujah, walking with salt, reading “educated” instead of “graceful,” etc.
The Beglopopovism was divided into a number of agreements: the Dyakonovo Consent, the Peremazans, the Luzhkov Consent, etc. The Dyakonov Consent (founded by Lysenin and Deacon) was a moderate movement, ready for dialogue with the Nikonians; the Peremazans accepted fugitive priests through a new anointing; Luzhkov's consent accepted only “secretly fleeing” priests, refused to pray for the Tsar, take the oath and perform military service.
Now the Beglopopovites have two bishops and 18 priests in 20 parishes. Some Beglopopovites have retained their rejection of everything new, so they avoid theaters, television, the press, and do not shave their beards. Their communities could be found back in the last century in Transbaikalia, the Middle Volga region, and the Bryansk region.
The priests ultimately sought to create their own church hierarchy and not depend on the priests ordained in the Russian Orthodox Church. However, this was not done immediately. Only in 1846 did the priests persuade the Bosnian Bishop Ambrose, who had recently been deprived of his see due to disagreements with the Turkish authorities, to become the head of the priestly hierarchy. The Bosnian contributed to the creation of a new hierarchy centered in the city of Belaya Krinitsa (in Bukovina - then on the territory of Austria). This hierarchy began to be called the White, or Austrian.
Later, the center of the movement moved to Moscow. The management of the affairs of the church was carried out by the community of the Moscow Rogozhskoe cemetery.
For a long time, the Belokrinichniki did not make contact with the official church, but in 1862, some of them (“okrugniks”), in a special “District Message,” abandoned a number of provisions that were most condemned by the Orthodox Church. A small part of the sectarians who did not agree with such concessions formed a group of “anti-environmentalists,” or “dissenters.”
At the head of the Belokrinitsky hierarchy in the 20th century was the Archbishop of Moscow and All Rus'. “Okruzhniki” lived in the Moscow and Kaluga regions, on the Don, the Volga-Vyatka region, in the Northern Urals, in Western Siberia, in the Chernigov region and in Moldova. And “discordants” could be found in Moscow, the Kirov region, Tatarstan, and the south of Ukraine.
In 1923 in Saratov, under the leadership of the Renovationist Archbishop Nikola (P. A. Pozdnev), the priests, who did not recognize the Belokrinitsky hierarchy, created the Russian Ancient Orthodox Church. Her spiritual center is located in the city of Novozybkov, Bryansk region.
In the 80s of the 18th century, with the permission of the Russian authorities, another trend in clericalism was formed - Edinoverie. Its founder was Archbishop Nicephorus Theotony, who built it in the village. Znamensky, Elisavetgrad district, a church for Old Believers. The basis of Edinoverie was the idea of accepting priests from official church, searching for a compromise with the Russian Orthodox Church.
The co-religionists received official recognition during the reign of Emperor Paul I, who approved 16 points, subject to which the co-religionist Old Believers agreed to join Orthodoxy.
Thanks to official recognition by the authorities during the period of repressions of Nicholas I against the Old Believers, co-religionists, on the contrary, received a number of advantages. In 1851, there were 179 Edinoverie churches in Russia. Many Old Believers, in particular the Moscow Fedoseevites, converted to Edinoverie. It is obvious that the secular and ecclesiastical authorities set the goal of a complete transfer of the entire Old Believers to Edinoverie. In Moscow, the center of common faith became the St. Nicholas Monastery.
Fellow believers still maintain their rituals today and perform services according to old books. But the priests in this church are appointed by the official Orthodox hierarchs.
At the end of the 20th century, a small number of co-religionists were in Moscow and the Moscow region, in Ivanovo, Nizhny Novgorod and in Latvia.
The more radical non-priests, realizing that there were not enough priests to perform the sacraments, read sermons, etc. according to the old rite, decided to abandon the church hierarchy - with Nikon’s reforms for them true church ceased to exist, the sacraments and the priesthood disappeared.
The sectarians preferred to pray to God without priests. Their place in the communities was taken by charterers and bookkeepers. Bessepovstvo was divided into many interpretations, differing in their attitude to the state, church, synod, and rituals. Among these rumors, the largest are the Novgorod Bespopovtsy, Pomeranians (Danilovtsy), Fedoseevtsy, Filippovtsy, Runners and Wanderers, Spasovo Consent, Akulinovtsy.
Each of these movements had several smaller sects within it. Their list is reminiscent of the description of a rich fair, where there is everything: marriage partners, semi-nuptials and non-nuptials; newlyweds, Polish and Riga; childbearing and non-childbearing; defaulters, Luchinkovites and Golbeshniks; dumb nonsense, lefties, Ryabinovites, non-Molyaks, hole-makers, chapelists, etc., etc.
Peter's and subsequent reforms in the religious sphere had a strong influence on the Old Believers. It was significantly replenished by people fleeing from increasing feudal exploitation and growing state duties. The clergy who lost their jobs created the ideology of the Old Believers, spreading rumors about the “coming of the Antichrist.” By the end of the 18th century, over a third (!) of the country's Orthodox population ended up in Old Believer communities.
Bespopovtsy often spoke out very sharply against the state and the Russian Orthodox Church. They were also characterized by increased attention to the motives of the “end of the world,” talk about the Antichrist, and constant movement around the country.
The earliest interpretation of priestlessness is the Danilovites, or Pomeranians. They took rather moderate positions. The dispute about the admissibility or impermissibility of marriage caused the Pomors to split into several agreements. Pomeranian supporters live in Western Siberia, the Urals, the Middle Volga region, the Don, Belarus and Lithuania.
The Pomeranians' desire to reach a compromise with the authorities led to the fact that the Fedoseevites, a more radical group, separated from them. A new movement was founded at the end of the 17th century by Theodosius Vasiliev. His followers strictly adhered to asceticism and celibacy. Subsequently, some groups (consents) abandoned this. In 1771, sectarians founded the Preobrazhenskaya community in Moscow, which became the largest center of priestlessness. Over time, the demands of the Fedoseevites softened significantly. Until recently, communities of Fedoseevites existed in Belarus, the Baltic states, and the Pskov and Novgorod regions.
At the beginning of the 18th century, a group of Filippovites separated from the Pomeranians. Members of the sect resolutely fought against state power, showing extreme fanaticism and sometimes self-immolating themselves. By the way, not only Filippovites did this. For example, in 1675–1695. 37 self-immolations were recorded (they were also called “burnings”), during which at least 20 thousand people died. Then fanaticism dried up and only the traditional question of marriage remained, which split the Filippovites. Now they mainly live in northern Russia.
In 1692 and 1694 under the leadership of Khariton Karpov and other supporters of the old faith, councils of Novgorod Old Believers were held, at which the main provisions of this movement were developed: the final reign of the Antichrist in the world, the disappearance of grace, the absence of the priesthood, which does not make it possible to perform the sacraments of communion and marriage.
The Spasovites appeared at the end of the 17th century in the Kerzhen forests. Having abandoned the priesthood and sacraments, these sectarians pinned all their hopes on Christ (the Savior). In terms of the number of agreements formed within the framework of this movement, Spasovism surpasses any other sense in the Old Believers. The followers of these agreements lived until recently in the Upper and Middle Volga region, Vladimir region.
From the priestless environment came the so-called runners, or wanderers. These are some of the most radical, fanatical non-priests.
The idea of “leaving” has long been in Russian society. The first supporters of fleeing to distant “deserts and villages”, to dense forests and swamps, sought to justify their actions with the instructions of the prophet Daniel that when “the abomination of desolation comes, flee to the mountains,” and with references to Archpriest Avvakum. Actually, the difficult economic situation, serfdom, and persecution of the Old Believers by the authorities forced them to flee.
The first preachers of pilgrimage appeared in Pomerania back in the 17th century. These were the monks who managed to escape when the tsarist troops occupied the Solovetsky Monastery, the citadel of the Old Believers.
However, the sect of runners took shape only in the second half of the 18th century. Its founder is often called the fugitive soldier Evfimy from Pereyaslavl. The supporters of the movement themselves took the name “true Orthodox wandering Christians.” From the very beginning of its existence, the ranks of the sect were replenished by people from the lower classes of society - runaway peasants and soldiers.
The disciples of Euthymius tried to copy the desert lifestyle of the “sufferers for the faith” from the first generations of the schism. However, the ideas with which they argued for the need to return to such a way of life were quite new.
The main teaching of Euthymius boiled down to a protest against reconciliation with the world, a denial of the existing order.
According to Euthymius, with the establishment of Peter’s power, the world was ruled by a “sensual Antichrist.” The founder of the sect spoke out against inequality, the tsar and the Orthodox Church. Euthymius said and wrote that leaving the world of Satan is the only way to maintain integrity before God. “Have no city, no village, no house,” this is the means to escape the snares of the Antichrist.
The beliefs of the sect are set out in the book of wanderers “Flower Garden”. It contains mystical verses “On the Times”, “On Flight under the Antichrist”, etc. There is also a “Moral Flower Garden”. It suggests being meek, hospitable, and under no circumstances communicating with “heretics.”
The runners demanded a break with society, an intolerant attitude towards dissenters, and constantly talked about the coming Coming. At first, the followers of the movement took refuge in deserted places and hiding places, but later some of the runners (“benefactors” and “residences”) began to fulfill the vow of wandering only symbolically. But they gave shelter to “real wanderers” and had the right to accept the appropriate initiation already on their deathbed.
True Orthodox wandering Christians live in the Yaroslavl and Saratov regions, in the Northern Urals.
Along with the Beglopopovtsy, priestly and bespopovtsy, at the same time, many more sects arose, the rituals and dogmatics of which had very little in common with Orthodoxy and the Old Believers. First of all, these are spiritual Christians who sought closer communication with God. Spiritual Christians are characterized by belief in the incarnation of the Holy Spirit in living people.
The Khlysty, Skoptsy, Molokans and Doukhobors developed a unique creed and cult practice.
The Old Believers began to stand out among the Orthodox community for their desire to preserve not only religion, but also the customs and way of life of pre-Petrine Rus'. There are still Old Believer villages where you can see sundresses and thick men’s beards. Wooden churches of the Old Believers, as a rule, are not distinguished by their splendor; for a long time, Old Believers icon painters continued the Old Russian traditions.
Old Believers (not only runners) founded settlements in the most remote places - in the North, Siberia, the Far East and Transbaikalia. The order in the Old Believer environment looks like modern man a striking atavism in our time. The whole country learned about the Lykov family, who were discovered in the taiga in the early 80s of the last century. Of course, their case is unique, but it was precisely the Old Believer mood that could have prompted the head of the family to settle with his family far from civilization in order to preserve his faith.
And now government officials may have problems with representatives of Old Believers. For example, recently, after a long struggle, women Old Believers of Tuva were allowed to take passport photos wearing headscarves.
However, the Old Believers are known for something else. This is strict adherence to the rules of sobriety, hard work, and the tradition of community mutual assistance. One of the deputies of the State Duma, Count Uvarov, once said this: “I must testify before the high chamber that when you drive somewhere in a village, distant, deaf, and you see nice houses, rich buildings, people who are not drunk, busy with work, people who are moral and sober, you can always say in advance (ask and they will always tell you): these are the Old Believers.”
The Old Believers were among the richest people in Russia. They owned factories, trading enterprises, and large plots of land. (These holdings especially increased after the reform of 1861, when peasants were able to buy land more freely.)
The Old Believers contributed to the economic development of vast sparsely populated territories and to the economic development of the country. For example, one of the most striking pages economic activity Bespopovsky Old Believers is associated with the Vygovsky monastic community in Northern Zaonezhie, which dates back to 1691. At the very beginning of the 18th century, Peter I was in great need of iron. Iron factories appear one after another in the Olonets region. However, in such remote places it was difficult to provide them with workers. It was then that they remembered again about the Vygov hermits, and a decree was received on Vyga so that “those gathered in the Vygov desert from different cities” “would be obedient to work at the Povenets factories and would provide all possible assistance.” And for such a service to the state - according to the custom of Peter - they were promised the freedom to “live in that Vygov desert and send their services to God according to old printed books.”
On the Volga, the “schismatics” raised the grain trade, and, for example, in Alaska, the Russian Marine Partnership, which was engaged in fishing, appeared, founded by Old Believers who had left Russia at one time; in Oregon there are still entire villages and farms belonging to Russian Old Believers.
Starting from the time of Peter I, the government allowed some Old Believers to freely profess their faith and perform rituals, subject to the payment of a double capitation tax and restrictions on rights (the ban on holding public and government positions, receiving nobility). Old Believers had to register, joining the “schismatic religion.” Most of the Pomeranian Old Believers accepted Peter’s conditions and formed the basis of the Russian Old Believer merchants, which later became famous for such names as the Bugrovs, Rukavishnikovs, Bashkirovs, and others. The (secret) schismatics who evaded registration were subjected to state persecution. The priests were charged with the duty of monitoring the Old Believers. There were frequent cases of abuse when priests, for money, enrolled secret Old Believers among those receiving communion in the Orthodox Church.
But the capabilities of the Orthodox Church in relation to the Old Believers were limited. Peter I transferred the responsibility for repressive measures against “secret schismatics” to a special “schismatic office” created in 1711. Subsequently, control over the Old Believer population was entrusted to the Ministry of Internal Affairs (1802). Only the possibility of propaganda work remained in the hands of the church. Clergy of various ranks wrote polemical works against the Old Believers and organized public debates. Old Believer leaders wrote response essays. On the part of the Old Believers, the Denisov brothers were prominent polemicists; their essay “Pomeranian Answers” is one of the main literary works of the non-priest Old Believers.
Empress Anna Ioannovna ordered the Old Believers to obtain passports and pray for her “godly rule.” A significant part of the sectarians refused this and were persecuted; the army also participated in actions against the Old Believers. This was the case in Starodubye and on the Vetka River. This period was marked by mass self-immolations.
Catherine II, who proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance, freed the Old Believers from the double poll tax and the entry in their passports: “schismatic.” Henceforth they were ordered to be called Old Believers. They received the right to receive the nobility and hold elected positions.
Since 1905, when the principle of religious tolerance was officially proclaimed, Old Believers received rights on an equal basis with other residents of the country. During the years of Soviet power, Old Believers, like most Russian sectarians, were also not favored. It was quite reasonable for the peasants to join the kulaks (they had strong farms); of course, merchants and industrialists also suffered. Many went abroad.
If the Christians of the first centuries of our era argued over one iota, then the dispute between the schismatics and the Nikonians was waged, as it might seem, over one letter “i” and one finger.
In fact, the split reflected difficult situation in Russian society - all the problems that rich and poor, Russians and Ukrainians, priests and laity could have; all their discontent with secular and ecclesiastical authorities and life in general. Everything was reflected in the movement of the Old Believers. And how serious were the differences, how fierce was the confrontation, if to this day thousands of our contemporaries carefully preserve the faith of their great-great-grandfathers.
One of the two main movements of the Old Believers. It arose simultaneously with the schism and finally took shape in the last decade of the 17th century.
The priests accept all 7 sacraments of Christianity. The priests recognize the need for priests during services and rituals.
Traditionally, trade and industrial elements played a leading role in clericalism.
The main centers of priesthood were initially the Nizhny Novgorod region, where there were tens of thousands of Old Believers, the Don region, the Chernigov region, and Starodubye. In the 19th century, the largest center of priesthood became the community of the Rogozhsky cemetery in Moscow, in which the leading role was played by the owners of manufactories.
Social contradictions and internal struggle led to the formation of various consensuses in the priesthood: the Peremazanstsy, the Dyakonovtsy, the Luzhkovo Consent.
The priests did not immediately manage to create their own church hierarchy, since the bishops who preserved the old faith were either repressed or accepted the Nikonian reforms. Therefore, the Old Believers-priests were forced to accept priests who defected from the Russian Orthodox Church for various reasons. For this, the priests received the name “Beglopopovtsy”.
When receiving fugitive Orthodox priests, the priests proceeded from the recognition of the validity of ordination in the Russian Orthodox Church, believing that grace was preserved in this church, despite the reforms. Subsequently, some of the priests came under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church, preserving the pre-reform rituals, another part created their own hierarchies, and the third part went into non-priesthood.
In 1846, the Belokrinitsky hierarchy arose, which is currently one of the largest Old Believer movements.
In terms of dogma, the priests are practically no different from the Orthodox, but they adhere to the old cult rituals. Priests are characterized by participation in church life not only of clergy, but also of laity.
The priests refused to recognize secular authorities, and the Nikon Church was considered heretical. They accepted fugitive priests from the Synod (Nikon) church after rebaptism or confirmation. They recognized the Christian sacraments and the doctrine of church hierarchy.
Later, like bespopovtsy, The Ppopovites were divided into several factions. The most well-known rumors are Avvakumovshchina, Afinogenovsky consent (Afinogenovschina), Dyakovo consent, Epifan consent (Epifanovschina), Luzhkov consent, Peremazovschina, Suslov consent (Suslovtsy), Chernoboltsy.
In 1856, the Kazan diocese was established, in which the Old Orthodox Church of the Old Believers, who accepted the Belokrinitsky hierarchy, was headed by one of the most educated Old Believers of his time, Bishop of Kazan and Vyatka Pafnuty (in the world Potap Maksimovich Shikin; 1815-1890). And from 1884 to 1912 - Bishop Joasaph (in the world Ivan Petrovich Zelenkin; 1838-1912). Some of the Old Believers-priests did not recognize the Belokrinitsky hierarchy and continued to lure priests from the dominant church. Thus, the Old Believers-Priests were divided into two agreements: “Austrian”, also known as “Belokrinitsky”, and “Beglopopovsky”. If there were many “Austrians” in the Kazan province, then there were only a few “Beglopopovites”, mostly from the Central Black Earth region, where the Beglopopov consensus was very widespread.
In Chistopol there were few “Austrians”; most of the parishioners were peasants from the villages of the Chistopol district. In 1881, a parish was organized in the city with a semi-underground church in a residential building. The main disadvantage of this Austrian house of worship was that it was located in a residential building and therefore did not have the attributes of a visible temple. Kazan Bishop Pafnuty in 1881 ordained Pyotr Danilovich Zaletov, a peasant from the Nikolaev district of the Samara province, to the priesthood. Two years later, Father Peter moved to Kazan - he served in the Kazan church of the Belokrinitsky hierarchy until his death in 1917. In Chistopol, Vikul Abramov, a peasant from the village of Krasnovidovo, became a priest; his fate is unknown, but back in 1914 he continued to be the only priest in the parish .
There were much more non-popov agreements than priest agreements. Four of them were presented in Chistopol.
“Staropomorskoe”, aka “Fedoseevskoe”, aka “Pomeranian-celibate”. The Old Pomorians did without the clergy, trying to imitate a full-fledged church life. Their services were performed by laymen; these were experts in Scripture and rituals - the so-called “fathers”. Their chapels had altars with sealed royal gates- due to the lack of clergy, the “fathers” served the liturgy, but there was no communion, because the sacrament of the Eucharist - the transformation of bread and wine - could only be performed by a priest. The “fathers” baptized children and performed funeral services for the dead - according to church canons, these requirements, in extreme cases, could be performed by a layman. But marriages without priests, according to the same canons, could not be concluded. Therefore, the “Fedoseevites” believed that there could be no real marriages - hence the name. Of course, the overwhelming majority of Old Pomeranians lived in families, but it was believed that this was not a life of marriage, but “in sin.” Therefore, during services, married men stood behind everyone, as a sign that penance was imposed on them. The “Staropomorian” consent was the most widespread in Russia of all the non-priest consents; its spiritual center was located in Moscow.
In Chistopol, according to the list of Fedoseevites, there were only 171 people in the parish, of which 60 were men and 111 women.
Among the main trustees of the parish, it is necessary to note local wealthy people: Alexey Yakovlevich Logutov, mayor in 1908-1912; Artemy Vachugov, merchant, chairman of the council of the Ryabinovsk community; Ivan Mokeev, Alexey Logutov, Savva Vachugov, members of the community council; Maklakovs, Makeevs, Myasnikovs, Kirpichnikovs, etc.
The memories of one of the Chistopol residents about his visit to the Ryabinovskaya chapel on the feast of the Ascension of the Lord have been preserved: “The chapel itself has no external signs, it is a dilapidated residential building; in the middle there is an old iconostasis under black varnish; it contains up to 75 different icons, but among the icons there are so many white crosses (without images) that they make up about 50% of all icons. Those praying are all from the lower class, poor people, not a single rich person (and this is not a small holiday). The mood in general is strictly prayerful, but in the external environment it is very gloomy; I mentally returned to the times of self-immolation and, in general, presented to my imagination a sad picture of the sad beginning of the Old Believers. At the time of my arrival, the rector of the community, Mr. Sorokin, in a high and pleasant, somewhat tearful voice, was reading the Apostle with feeling and clearly... The Gospel was being read by an elderly man, but not like that, with a flaw: too hastily, even in Nikonian... This formidable old man sometimes says this: “ I consider everyone heretics who does not teach as I do.”
The priests, who accepted the Austrian hierarchy, separated from the beglopopovism in 1846, when they created their own hierarchy within the Austrian Empire, in Bukovina, in the village. White Krinitsa. The circumstances of the emergence of the Austrian hierarchy are as follows. - Taking advantage of the leniency of the legislation under the imp. Catherine II and Emperor Alexander I, the priests had an abundance of fugitive priests. But with imp. Nicholas I in 1821 issued a decree that ordered: “again not allowing fugitive priests to appear among schismatics.” This decree, quite strictly executed, produced in the Old Believers the so-called “impoverishment of the priesthood.” The number of permitted priests became fewer and fewer, and as they were diminished, disorder increased: services began to be performed with extreme negligence, several babies were baptized at a time, weddings were celebrated in single file, in pairs of seven, everyone was confessed together, etc. As a result of this, the long-existing idea of establishing an independent Old Believer episcopal see reappeared and its implementation began. After unsuccessful attempts to find a bishop who would agree to convert to the Old Believers, they finally found such a person. This was Ambrose, Metropolitan of Bosnosarajevo, deprived of his see due to misunderstandings with the Turkish government. After long negotiations, the priests managed to persuade Ambrose to convert from Orthodoxy to the Old Believers and become an Old Believer bishop. The acceptance of Ambrose took place in 1846 through the curse of imaginary heresies and smearing, and instead of St. peace, in the absence of it, oil was consumed, and the fugitive priest, Hieromonk Jerome, also performed the ceremony over it. Having become an Old Believer bishop, Ambrose ordained the Belokrinitsky clerk Cyprian Timofeev, called Kirill in monasticism, as a bishop, with the title of vicar of the Belokrinitsky Metropolis. Kirill installed bishops for the Russian priests, and thus the Austrian false hierarchy spread from Belaya Krinitsa and into Russia - bishops called Austrian and the imaginary priests they installed appeared in different places. Monastic envoys also came to the priests of the poorest parishes, especially to those about whom, after making inquiries, they learned that they were burdened by their situation; if these priests were weak in faith, then it was not difficult to seduce them into joining the schism with the promise of a better financial situation. It often happened that scoundrels came to Irgiz with stolen charters. All the priests acquired in this way in the Irgiz monasteries were brought under correction, with the renunciation of imaginary heresies and with the repetition of anointing over them. The Beglopopovites of all the mentioned places took priests here without any doubt, as if sent by the bishop. But, when these breeding grounds for the fleeing priesthood, even at the beginning of the reign of the emperor. Nicholas I, were somewhat limited in the acquisition of priests, and then some monasteries were completely abolished - then the Beglopopovites were forced to travel around Russia themselves to find the necessary priests and, due to inexperience, fell into failures and mistakes. Here they themselves saw what kind of people they had to deal with: before, only the monastery envoys who were looking for priests knew this and kept it secret, but now it became known to everyone. Therefore, many of the fugitive priests in the Chernigov settlements, on the Don and in other places decided - for the sake of necessity, to be governed, like the bespopovites, by the charterers, who were authorized to baptize children, confess the sick and give communion to the akibs with some gifts stored from the previous fugitive priests, to arrange marriages according to with the blessing of the parents and the guide, with prayer singing. In general, the Beglopopovtsy, controlled by the charterers, accepted all the provisions of the bespopovtsy, except for the rebaptism of those who came to them from the Orthodox Church.
Ryabinovtsy
From the local bespopovsky concords in the Kazan province it is necessary to single out the Ryabinovites. In the XIX - early XX centuries. Ryabinovskoe or consent “according to the cross” lived in the Kazan province, mainly in Laishevsky district (51% of all Ryabinovsky residents of the province; these are the villages of Monastyrsky Urai, Urakhchi, Anatysh, Melnichiy Pochinok, etc.), as well as in Chistopol (29%) and Chistopol district (10%; these are the villages of Maly Tolkish, Elantovo, Chistopolskie Vyselki, Bogorodskoye, etc.)38. The number of Ryabinovites in the Kazan province during the 19th and AD. XX centuries ranged from 67 to 3,549 people.
The Ryabinovites are a local phenomenon, widespread only in Chistopol and some villages of Chistopol, Spassky, Laishevsky districts - there were many such “own” agreements in different parts of Russia. Unfortunately, the “Ryabinovites” have not been studied by scientists - there is only one small article by missionary N.I. Ivanovsky in the magazine “Orthodox Interlocutor” for 1867, who visited the Ryabinovsky chapel in Chistopol. The Ryabinovites did not leave behind polemical literature, and others did not polemicize with them. Therefore, not everything is known about the Ryabinovites.
They reflected another, different from the Pomeranians, tendency, common among the Bespopovtsy. Instead of imitating church life without the clergy, the Ryabinovites, like a number of other agreements, developed their own traditions of religious life. There were no altars or icons in the Ryabinovites’ chapels; they prayed in front of smooth eight-pointed crosses, made from rowan (the rowan among the adherents of the Cross of Concord was associated with the tree - the tree in Palestine from which the crucifix for Jesus Christ was made) - hence the name. But what the theological basis for this is is unclear. The Ryabinovites performed baptisms and marriages themselves. Being generally small in number (no more than 20-30 thousand people at the beginning of the 20th century), in the city of Chistopol this agreement was the most widespread.
Despite the fact that the agreement “according to the cross”, or “rowan”, is one of the largest Chistopol communities, at the same time it is the most pitiful in church-religious terms, living out its short life. After the decree of 1905, the teaching of the Ryabinovites changed dramatically. Their service was performed in a chapel, with icons, according to the rules, but without singing, with only reading.
Conclusion
In the XIX - early XX centuries. The Old Believers of the Kazan province made up a significant proportion of the population and played important role in the economic and cultural development of the region.
Over several centuries of studying Russian mystical sects, various theories of their origin have been put forward. As shown modern research, Khlystovism fits organically into the context of Russian Orthodox culture church circle.
The religiosity of mystical sects forms a single religious foundation with Orthodox monastic culture. This is especially noticeable when comparing mystical sectarianism and mystical communities belonging to the Orthodox Church, known in the Middle Volga region as besednichestvo. Sectarianism developed the potential inherent in the very Orthodox religion. Many cultural connections remain between mystical sects and Orthodoxy in the 18th – 20th centuries.
The processes taking place in mystical sects are in many ways similar to the processes taking place in modern Orthodox communities, especially associated with old age, and tend to reproduce. Numerous groups of True Orthodox Christians that emerged after the revolution largely followed the path of the Khlyst communities. It can be assumed that given the anti-intellectual tendencies of the modern church environment, such phenomena will be repeated.
Over the three and a half centuries of its existence, the Old Believers have had a huge influence on the spiritual, economic and socio-political spheres of life of Russian society. The Old Believers were actively engaged in charitable activities, financed the construction and maintenance of Old Believers' houses of worship, the publication and distribution of religious literature, contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the ancient, pre-Nikon culture. A whole world of art was presented in the chapels: ancient icons, ancient books, objects church utensils. At the same time, it is important to understand that for Old Believers entrepreneurs, only the work the results of which were intended for the community, work aimed at the benefit of other people, mattered. Old Belief researcher V.V. Kerov noted that “the origins of the Old Believer entrepreneurs’ jealousy for the Cause lay in the ideas of “sacred duty to God and people.” The great merit of the Old Believers to Russian culture is that before the twentieth century. brought ancient Russian manuscripts, icons, crafts, and kept them alive important elements pre-Petrine culture. In particular, the Old Believers of Chistopol contributed to the development of the culture of the region, preserving the “old rite”, traditions and customs of “fathers and grandfathers”, cultural monuments (temples, ancient books, icons). Their contribution to the architecture of Chistopol should also be noted - houses and shops still decorate the main shopping streets of the city.
Old Believers merchants made a great contribution to the development of the economy of the Kazan province. The Old Believer dynasties were part of the trading elite of Kazan and Chistopol.
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Old Believers in their confrontation with the clergy and desire to honor traditions ancient orthodoxy often went to extremes. They disobeyed the authorities, accused the Church of heresy and killed themselves in the hope of salvation.
Popovtsy and non-popovtsy
The schism in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 1650-60s, associated with the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, put adherents of the old rite in a difficult situation - there was not a single bishop in their ranks. The last was Pavel Kolomensky, who died in 1656 and left no successors.
According to the canons, the Orthodox Church cannot exist without a bishop, because only he is authorized to appoint priests and deacons. When the last pre-reform priests and deacons passed away, the Old Believers parted ways. One part of the Old Believers decided that they could resort to the help of priests who had renounced Nikon’s faith. They began to willingly accept priests who had left their diocesan bishop. This is how the “priests” appeared.
Another part of the Old Believers was convinced that after the Schism, grace completely left the Orthodox Church and all that was left for them was to humbly wait Last Judgment. The Old Believers who rejected the priesthood began to be called “bespopovtsy.” They settled mainly on the uninhabited shores of the White Sea, in Karelia, and the Nizhny Novgorod lands. It is among the Bespopovites that the most radical ones subsequently appear. Old Believers' consent and talk.
Waiting for the Apocalypse
Eschatological motives became a key element in the ideology of the Old Believers. Many rumors of Old Believers, protecting themselves from the “Antichrist power”, existed from generation to generation in anticipation of the imminent end of the world. The most radical movements even tried to bring it closer. In preparation for the last days, they dug caves, lay down in coffins, starved to death, threw themselves into the pool, and burned themselves with entire families and communities.
Throughout its history, the Old Believers exterminated tens of thousands of their adherents. Alexander Prugavin, an expert on Old Believers and sectarianism, tried to determine the number of schismatics who died in the fire. According to his calculations, about 10,000 people were burned alive just before 1772.
Netovtsy (Spasovo consent)
This is one of the biggest non-priest agreements. The total number of Netovites at the end of the 20th century reached 100 thousand people, mainly living in the Saratov, Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir regions, as well as in the Middle Volga region.
Netovites (the word speaks for itself) deny Orthodox shrines, rituals and many sacraments, rely solely on the Savior, who “himself knows how to save us poor.” Throughout their existence, they tried to avoid any contact with the Orthodox Church, especially if it concerned burial rites. The dead were buried in the forest, ravine or behind the fence of the cemetery.
The Netovites still did not reject the sacrament of baptism. They recognize it as possible to perform the rite of baptism in the Orthodox Church, interpreting it in a very unique way: “although it was a heretic who baptized, but a priest in robes, and not a simple peasant.” However, more strict movements make do with self-baptism, and some replace this rite by simply putting a cross on a newborn.
Spassovo's consent requires from his followers quite severe asceticism in everyday life. For example, the consumption of foods made with yeast or with hops is prohibited; they also do not eat potatoes. There is a taboo on bright and colorful clothes. Proverbs say: “Whoever wears a motley shirt means his soul is the sister of the Antichrist” or “What is not a speck of color is a servant of an imp.”
Suicide in the form of self-immolations was widespread among Netovites.
Dyrniks
This is one of the most radical branches of salvation, which does not recognize any spiritual mentors. They do not venerate “newly painted” icons because without the priesthood there is no one to sanctify them, and “oldly painted” icons because they were desecrated by the possession of heretics. Dyrniks do not have special places of worship. Prayer takes place either outdoors or indoors through a special opening facing east. It is a sin for them to pray through a window or wall. A small group of hole makers now live in Central Siberia.
Pomeranian consent
The history of Pomeranian consent dates back to 1694, when a men's community was founded on the Vyg River. In 1723, the Vygov monastery became famous for compiling the “Pomeranian Answers.” This polemical book subsequently became an apologetic basis for the defense of the entire Old Believers.
The Pomeranians demand from their followers a complete break with the official church, and everyone who comes to them from Orthodoxy is required to rebaptize. The sacraments are not abandoned, but they are divided into those necessary for salvation (baptism, repentance and communion) and the rest, which can be dispensed with.
Serious disagreements arose among the Pomeranians over marriage. Over time, practicality triumphed. Thanks to the introduction of the marriage order, the Pomeranians legalized marital relations, which led to the possibility of legal transfer of property by inheritance.
In Soviet times, Pomeranians were the most numerous among the non-priest consents. Today large groups of their followers live in Vilnius, Riga and Moscow.
Fedoseevtsy
At the end of the 18th century, as a result of disputes about the inscription on the cross and about marriage, the Fedoseevites separated from the Pomeranian consent. In 1781, Ilya Kovylin (former serf of Prince Golitsyn) founded a community in Moscow in the area of the Preobrazhenskoye cemetery. The Fedoseyevskaya community was distinguished by strict discipline and unconditional submission to the mentor. Its members were required to observe celibacy and chastity.
Like many other Bespopovites, Fedoseevites believe that there is no more grace in the world. “We regard all modern state power as satanic, as a trap of the Antichrist,” they say. Of the church sacraments, only baptism and the Eucharist, which are performed by the laity, have been preserved. Due to non-recognition of the Orthodox priesthood, Fedoseevites practice cohabitation without marriage.
During the Great Patriotic War a large number of Fedoseevites collaborated with the German authorities and actively opposed the Red Army and partisans.
The most numerous groups of Fedoseevites live in the Pskov, Novgorod, Ulyanovsk and Tyumen regions. Their total number is about 200 thousand people.
Pastukhovo consent
It originated in the depths of the Pomeranian consent; its founder was the shepherd Vasily Stepanov. Unlike the Pomeranians, the shepherds avoided all communication with civil authorities. They rejected money, passports and other items with the image of the state emblem. But in order to avoid debauchery they were forced to recognize the marriage.
The extreme degree of rejection of the outside world imposed on the shepherds a ban on living in settlements where there was at least one government employee, a supporter of the Orthodox Church or a representative of another Old Believer persuasion. Their feet never set foot on stone pavements, like the inventions of the “age of Antichrist.”
Runners
In 1772, in the village of Sopelki near Yaroslavl, the running movement arose as a movement opposing the “Antichrist power.” The basis of the runners’ teaching is salvation from the Antichrist, whom, unlike most Bespopovites, they perceived not as a spiritual phenomenon, but as a personified person in the guise of Peter I.
The runners live in anticipation of the “first resurrection” when Christ will fight the Antichrist. And then it will come thousand year kingdom Christ, the New Jerusalem for the dwelling of pilgrims will be lowered from heaven to a place where there is no sea.” The runners see their new abode near the Caspian Sea, where they regularly make pilgrimages.
All runners are “self-baptized” and undertake to lead a chaste life, eating only lean food. They completely reject marriage, but at the same time they allow fornication, considering it a lesser sin.
Popular rumor tells of a strange custom among runners called the “Red Death.” Its essence is to suffocate a dying person with a red pillow so that he martyrdom He atoned not only for his own sins, but also for the sins of his brothers in faith.
For centuries, the runners, persecuted by the authorities as a “harmful sect,” remained a small group scattered throughout the remote places of Siberia and the Northern Urals.
Vodyaniki
Vodyanyniks or Old Priests belong to those denominations where the priesthood is not completely rejected. They denounce Old Believers who accept priests for money, but recognize the transition of a clergyman from Orthodoxy to the Old Believers if the priest renounces the “heretical faith.”
If a member of the Staropopovsky community gets sick, he is forbidden to take medicine. The essence of the treatment comes down solely to communion with Epiphany water.
Vozdykhantsy
In 1870, in Kaluga, shoemaker Ivan Akhlebinin founded a community that later received the name Vozdykhantsev. Members of this persuasion reject any external worship of God, icons, sacraments and church hierarchy, but recognize the “explanatory books” - the Gospel, the Acts of the Apostles and the Psalter.
According to the beliefs of the Vozdykhans, first there was the kingdom of God the Father, then came the kingdom of God the Son, and 8 thousand years after the creation of the world came the kingdom of the Holy Spirit. This doctrine was reflected in the rituals of the Vozdykhans. At prayer meetings, instead of making the sign of the cross, they sigh, raising their eyes to heaven and running a hand or handkerchief over their face.
Other
Many other radical agreements and interpretations of the non-priest Old Believers, without significantly differing from each other, have only their own characteristics. Thus, the followers of the consent of the gapes, having gathered for prayer on the day of the Eucharist, stand with their mouths open in anticipation of being given communion by the angels.
Darkers are those who recognize the rite of baptism, but perform it only at night, as if imitating Christ.
In the Akulinovo Consent, community life and celibacy are accepted. This served as a repeated reason for accusing Akulino members of debauchery and sin.
The Kapitonovites of the Kshara charter are supporters of radical approaches to suicide for faith, participants in mass acts of self-immolation.
Ryabinovites believe that the cross of Christ consisted of cypress, cedar and pine tree. They associate the last tree with rowan, from which the cross should be made.
The division of the Old Believers into two main directions - priestly and non-priestly - occurred in the mid-90s of the 17th century, when among the followers of the “old faith” an unusually acute question arose about how to get out of the impasse created due to the fact that priests “ Donikonovsky,” the old formation was almost gone by this time.
The Old Believers were divided into two main schools: priestly(recognizing the need for priests in worship and rituals) and Bespopovsky(denying the possibility of the existence of a “true” clergy).
Bespopovshchina retained only part of its liturgical practice church ceremonies, moreover, in a greatly simplified form, and some non-priest movements generally abandoned any rituals. Therefore, the initial positions of the “old faith” for priestlessness were, in fact, only the main arguments for accusing the official church of deviating from the “true” faith. In its essence, it is related to the old Russian sectarianism, and the use of the terms “Old Belief” or “Old Believers” in relation to it is extremely conditional. According to the teachings of the Bespopovites, the church is certainly not necessary for the salvation of the soul. The main argument of the Bespopovtsy in favor of this statement was that the entire true priesthood was exterminated by the Antichrist and that the priests of the new formation “are not sacred,” for after Nikon the church retreated from the true faith. In addition, the position was put forward that the priesthood has not only a mysterious meaning, but also a spiritual one, according to which “every Christian is a priest.” To confirm this position, the priestless people usually referred to the words of John Chrysostom: “Consecrate yourselves, be your own priests.”
The Bespopovites did not deny the monarchy in principle; their hostile attitude towards the tsarist government was explained mainly by the fact that it persecuted the Old Believers and patronized the ruling church. Because of this, the majority of the Bespopovites ruled out praying for the Tsar for a long time.
Bespopovtsy divide all church sacraments into: “necessary” and “simply necessary”. Among the first, they include only baptism, repentance (confession) and communion; the rest of the sacraments, in their opinion, “for the salvation of the soul” are not necessary. Baptism and confession are permitted, if necessary, to be performed by a layperson. Bespopovtsy interpret communion in a spiritual sense (as a desire to partake of the holy sacraments). As for marriage, if the initial priestlessism was characterized by its decisive denial and the preaching of asceticism, then later, in the second half of the 18th century, “marriage men” or “newlyweds” were already present in almost all the main movements of priestlessism. The management of the community and liturgical practice were carried out among the Bespopovtsy by elected mentors and lecturers.
The formation of priestlessness was influenced by local conditions and religious traditions North and North-West Russia.
In the inaccessible and sparsely populated Pomerania there were few churches, and some of them remained without priests for a long time. Therefore, many residents of this region died without confession and communion, infants were baptized by laymen, married couples cohabited without a wedding. Occasionally, the Pomeranians, gathering for public worship without a priest, were content with the service of an auditor. All this facilitated the spread of Old Believers in Pomerania precisely in the form of priestlessness.
What is characteristic of the initial history of priestlessness is that it found its main followers among the black-growing peasantry of the North and Northeast. All the main rumors of priestless behavior were formed in the regions located north of Moscow, and only later, from the second half of the 18th century, priestlessism began to gradually move towards the south.
Bespopovshchina never represented a single religious entity, falling apart into the following main theories: Pomeranian, Fedoseevsky, Filippovsky, Netovsky and Wanderer. All of them, with the exception of the wanderer one, developed at the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century. The attitude of the Bespopovites towards Orthodoxy and clericalism, as a rule, was characterized by religious intolerance and fanaticism. The Bespopovtsi-rebaptizers accepted all the Orthodox, priests and even non-rebaptized Orthodox Christians who came to them only through re-baptism, i.e., in the same way as heretics and non-religious Christians, “in the first order.” A certain religious aloofness (even to the point of the prohibition of having communication with each other in food, drink and prayer) was shown in relation to each other even by non-priests who were close in religion.
In general, for the lack of priests, the end of the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries were a time of intensified religious quest and the formation of religious doctrines of almost all major doctrines, heated religious disputes, behind which political or political disagreements were often felt social nature, which took place among various social groups of the Bespopovtsy. During this period, supporters of priestlessism were numerically inferior to supporters of clericalism, and the areas of their distribution were limited to Pomorie, the Baltic states and partly the Nizhny Novgorod region.
Clericalism presented a different picture during this period. Initially, priesthood took shape in the form of beglopopovschina, because its followers decided to accept priests who ran over to them from the official church. Clericalism represented literary rites, Old Believers in the true sense of the word. Not only at the end of the 17th century - the first half of the 18th century, but throughout its entire subsequent history, it was unable to develop an independent and original doctrine, which consisted in the fact that it was possible to take fugitive priests from the dominant Orthodox Church to perform divine services, despite the reign of , as in the whole “world”, the Antichrist. In the Nizhny Novgorod region, clericalism appeared from the very beginning of the schism. The Old Believers settled here mainly along the Kerzhenets and Belbash rivers, in dense forests, where their hermitages and settlements were scattered. At the end of the 17th century, this territory acquired the significance of an important Old Believer center.
