Western European culture 19. Development of Western European culture

→ →

The culture of the 19th century is considered to be bourgeois culture . The development of capitalism was accompanied by the formation of a powerful labor movement, the emergence of the world's first workers' party (England). The ideology of the labor movement was Marxism , which had a huge impact on the special-political life of Europe and the whole world. In 1871, the workers of Paris established their power, the Paris Commune, for several months. Under the leadership of K. Marx and F. Engels, a 1st International- International Association of Workers. After its dissolution in European countries began to emerge social democratic parties who were guided by the ideas of Marxism. Marxism occupies a leading place in the public consciousness of the 20th century.

In the 19th century, a new concept of cultural development emerged - "Elite concept" , according to which the producer and consumer of culture is a privileged class of society - the elite. The concept of elite culture was substantiated by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche. Elite- this is the best, selective, chosen: what is in every social class, social group. The elite is the part of society most capable of spiritual activity, endowed with high creative inclinations. It is the elite, according to these philosophers, that ensures social progress. Consequently, culture should also be focused not on the needs of the "mass", "crowd", but on meeting the needs and needs of this layer of society - people capable of aesthetic contemplation and artistic and creative activity. (The work of Schopenhauer "The World as Will and Representation" and F. Nietzsche "Human, Too Human" and "Thus Spoke Zarathustra").

XIX century - the century of final approval capitalist form of management , the age of intensive development of industrial production, its branches such as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, energy, etc. This is also the age of the full demand for science, which rises to an unprecedented early height. The needs of industry dictate the formation of a system of school and vocational education in Europe. The number of students at universities is growing. England becomes a country of universal literacy. Here are just a few of the scientific achievements of this time:

Substantiation by Charles Darwin of the main factors in the process of evolution of the organic world from ape to man;

The creation by physicist Michael Faraday of the doctrine of the electric field;

Development by microbiologist Louis Pasteur of a method of prevention against anthrax;

Description by the botanist Robert Brown of the nucleus of a plant cell and the discovery of the random movement of the smallest particles (Brownian motion).

The practice of the cultural life of the 19th century included the holding of scientific conferences, symposiums, world exhibitions, etc. Expanding technical equipment of artistic culture; at the end of the 19th century, cinema art appeared, design (artistic design) appeared as a result of the rapid development of technology, the massization of production and the expansion of the boundaries of aesthetic activity. Experiments are being carried out to combine music and color. (A.Skryabin, M.Ciurlionis).

There is no single dominant in the artistic culture of the 19th century. Various pan-European styles and directions are formed and function.

Romanticism (the first third of the 19th century) is a broad ideological and artistic movement in the spiritual life of European and American society. Originating in Germany (Schiller, Goethe, the Schlegel brothers), Romanticism expanded throughout the world:

In poetry, his representatives were D. Byron, V. Hugo, V. Zhukovsky;

In romantic philosophy and aesthetics - F. Schelling, S. Kierkegaard;

In music - F. Chopin, G. Berlioz, F. Schubert;

In painting - E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, D. Constable, O. Kiprensky;

In fiction - V. Scott, A. Dumas, E. Hoffman, F. Cooper.

Romanticism was based on the creative method, which proclaimed the absolute and unlimited freedom of the individual as its main principle. Artists committed to this trend depicted dramatic insoluble contradictions between base reality and a lofty ideal. Hence the departure of the romantic into the world of illusions, into fantastic countries, and so on. In romanticism, the main thing is not a show of individualism, but a heroic-pathetic glorification of loneliness.

The works of artists (novel) are filled with feelings of delight and despair, a sense of the eternal mystery of the world, the incomprehensibility of its complete knowledge. As a rule, the artist creates his own world in a work of art, more beautiful than real life. Romanticism was the reaction of the progressive people of Europe to the collapse of the ideals of the Great French Revolution. Romanticism manifested itself with the greatest force in the artistic poetry of Germany, France, and England.

It is also reflected in music. This is the musical creativity of Chopin, Berlioz, Schubert, Liszt.

Realism 19th century is a creative process and method inherent in the artistic culture of European countries, according to which the task of art is a true depiction of life. In the works of Lessing and Diderot, as early as the 18th century, the idea of a realistic "free imitation" of nature was developed. Realism of the 19th century was called critical realism . It has the following features:

Deep understanding of life;

Wide coverage of reality;

Artistic understanding of the contradictions of life.

The character of a person is interpreted in realistic works as a contradictory and developing unity. It can change depending on the circumstances of life. Realist writers (N. Gogol, F. Stendhal, O. Balzac, A. Pushkin, F. Dostoevsky, A. Chekhov, L. Tolstoy, etc.) are characterized by a heightened interest in the social principle of reality.

In the last third of the 19th century, Western European and American culture developed naturalism - an artistic method, according to which the nature of art was explained through ideas borrowed from natural science. The naturalist artist strives for the external plausibility of details, the depiction of single phenomena, as a result of which the influence of the social factor is clearly underestimated. The artist gives "Pieces of Life", considering such a detailed description as a condition for truthfulness in art. (E. Zola, G. de Maupassant, G. Hauptman, D. Mamin-Sibiryak).

In the 60s and 70s of the 19th century, an artistic movement arose in France, called impressionism . Impressionism is most clearly embodied in the visual arts. The stylistic features of Impressionism are:

Refusal of isolation and stability of the image of objects;

Fixation of instant, as if random situations, fragmentation;

Unexpected angles of figures and objects.

In painting, impressionism most clearly manifested itself in the art of O. Renoir, E. Degas, E. Manet, C. Monet, C. Pissarro. These artists sought to convey the beauty of the fleeting states of nature, the mobility and variability of human life. Landscape works they wrote in the open air (en plein air) to convey the feeling of sparkling sunlight. This gave rise to a new painting technique, which was especially manifested in the color scheme of the canvases: local color, the subtlest sense of color, its dependence on lighting and the state of the air.

Nature was understood by the Impressionists as an objective reality that can be trusted. An artist in their understanding is an intermediary between people and nature, designed to reveal to people the beauty of this world, their impression of it.

Western European culture of the 19th century.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

A. Blok

Culture of the 19th century is a culture of established bourgeois relations. Capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all branches of material production, which led to corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness). The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the basic classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat - the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of the alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time. European culture of the XIX century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society is, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in depth of penetration into the being and spiritual world of a person in terms of creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art

Among the socio-economic and political factors, the decisive importance was social revolutions and revolutionary movement. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept many countries of Europe and represented one of the most important stages in the class struggle. Οʜᴎ contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of urgent historical tasks, in particular, the unification of Italy and Germany, awakened in progressive mankind the desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.

A huge influence on the development of the Western European world had industrial Revolution , which ended precisely in the 19th century, which led to a significant restructuring of labor and the objective world. Its immediate result is an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. Practical needs stimulated the rapid development of science. 19th century - ϶ᴛᴏ heyday classical natural science, creation unified system of sciences . At this time, the connection between science and production is becoming closer. The first research laboratories working for industry appear. Discoveries in various fields of natural science are increasingly influencing the development of leading industries: metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering, instrumentation, transport, chemical industry.

To the most striking achievements of the industrial revolution of the XIX century. includes the use of electricity in industry, new means of communication (telegraph, telephone), driving devices of working machines, in many technological processes of various industries, in the creation of incandescent lamps for lighting rooms and streets. The creation of a steam locomotive, an internal combustion engine, a telephone, radio, cinema and much more was a revolution in science and technology.

Formation has begun industrial society , radically different from the pre-industrial one that preceded it. Industrial production associated with constantly developing technology, with the release of new goods and the creation of a service sector, as K. Marx emphasized, played a great civilizing role. Tearing out huge masses of people from the former social structures, undermining these structures themselves, industrialization becomes the driving force that introduces the masses into new relationships and accustoms them to a new way of life, rhythm of work, discipline, expands literacy and horizons of being.

Turbulent political and social processes predetermined in many countries a change in the forms of government. France underwent especially significant upheavals, where a Directory, a Consulate, twice an Empire were established over the course of a century, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, a Republic was proclaimed twice, and even the Paris Commune took place, when the working class took power for a short time.

Spiritual culture of the XIX century. developed and functioned under the influence of two most important factors: success in the field of philosophy and natural science. The leading dominant culture of the XIX century. was the science.

Continuous revolutionary upheavals took place in the 19th century. in science. In this historical period, science was glorified R. Mayer, J. Joule, G. Helmholtz, who discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, which provided a single basis for all sections of physics and chemistry. Of great importance in the knowledge of the world was the creation T. Schwannom and M. Schleiden cell theory, which showed the uniform structure of all living organisms. C. Darwin , who created the evolutionary doctrine in biology, introduced the idea of development in natural science. Thanks to the periodic system of elements discovered by the brilliant Russian scientist D. I. Mendel-eev , the internal connection between all known types of matter was proved. The discovery of the electron, radium, the transformation of chemical elements, the creation A. Einstein theory of relativity and quantum theory M. Planckam marked a breakthrough into the realm of the microworld and high speeds.

In the 19th century significant progress has been made philosophical thought. It was prepared by the teachings of I. Kant and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of an objective-idealistic philosophy were laid, framed in a coherent teaching F. D. Schelling (1775-1854). Schelling saw in art that sphere where the opposites of the theoretical and moral-practical are overcome; the aesthetic principle appears as ʼʼbalanceʼʼ, complete harmony of conscious and unconscious activity, the coincidence of nature and freedom, the triumph of feelings and moral principles.

The objective-idealistic concept was further developed in the works of the greatest German philosopher G. Hegel , which gave it completeness in the form of the basic laws of dialectics.

19th century gave the world K. Marx and F. Engels who created in the middle of the century materialistic doctrine. K. Marx and F. Engels asserted the primacy of matter and, using Hegelian dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism, according to which the history of mankind appears as a change of formations (modes of production) and class struggle. Their doctrine, which received further development, went down in history under the name of Marxism.

Under the influence of atheistic tendencies in society, a serious crisis is church. New religions are penetrating Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc. are born.
Hosted on ref.rf
The processes of secularization undermine the influence of religion as an integrating principle. Religious conflicts are weakening, but at the same time the sense of unity of believers is undermined. These processes do not mean a break in social ties, but they largely change the nature of these ties. The unity of society is largely formed as national unity.

The development of production meant the introduction of ever more complex technologies, which was impossible without a certain minimum of public education. Enlightenment contributed to the abolition of many medieval vestiges in the field of law, legal proceedings, art, morality, and political culture. It led to the gradual democratization of society, as ever wider sections of the population began to enjoy legal protection, acquired the opportunity to participate in civil life, and could join the achievements of culture.

Artistic culture of the 19th century. The main artistic trends in the development of European culture of the XIX century. were classicism (which was becoming obsolete), romanticism, realism.

Romanticism- (French romantisme; from the Middle Ages, roman - novel). expressed disappointment in the ideas of the French Revolution. Romantic art is characterized by disgust for bourgeois reality, a resolute rejection of the rationalistic principles of the Enlightenment and classicism, and distrust of the cult of reason. The Romantics asserted the dignity of the human personality, the inherent value of its inner world and spiritual and creative life. This was embodied in the depiction of outstanding characters and strong passions, aspirations for unlimited freedom. The revolution proclaimed the freedom of the individual, but the same revolution gave rise to the spirit of acquisitiveness and selfishness. These two sides of personality (the pathos of freedom and individualism) manifested themselves in a very complex way in the romantic conception of the world and man.

Romantics denied the extreme importance and possibility of an objective reflection of reality, they proclaimed the subjective arbitrariness of creative imagination as the basis of art. Exceptional events and the extraordinary environment in which the characters acted were chosen as plots for romantic works.

Originating in Germany, where the foundations of the romantic worldview and romantic aesthetics were laid, romanticism is rapidly spreading throughout Europe. It covered all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, humanities, plastic arts. Representatives of romanticism Byron, Heine, Hoffmann(in literature), Schumann, Wagner, Chopin- in music, Delacroix, Géricault- in painting, etc.

Realism. In realistic coverage, the phenomena of reality appear in all their complexity, versatility and richness of aesthetic properties. The principle of generalization becomes typing. The truthfulness of details and the display of typical characters acting in typical circumstances is the main principle of realism. Realism did not oppose romanticism, it was its ally in the struggle against the idealization of bourgeois social relations, for the national and historical originality of works of art (the color of the place and time).

By the middle of the century, realism becomes the dominant trend in European culture.

Realism arose in France and England under the conditions of established capitalist relations. The social contradictions and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. Οʜᴎ denounced acquisitiveness, blatant inequality, selfishness, hypocrisy. In its ideological focus, it becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of the great realist writers is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice. Representatives of realism: O. Balzac, V. Hugo, G. Flaubert, B. Shaw G. Ibsen and others.

In the second half of the 19th century, new artistic and aesthetic theories.

Symbolism. The Symbolists, focusing their attention on artistic expression through ideas that are beyond human sensory perception, sought to break through the visible reality to the ʼʼhidden realitiesʼʼ, the supertemporal ideal essence of the world. Here the leading tendencies of modern art have already manifested themselves - a longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of social catastrophes, distrust of centuries-old cultural and spiritual values, and mysticism.

The Painful Decline of Civilization is an Undeniable Evidence for the Outstanding French Poet Charles Baudelaire . He is a forerunner of French symbolism. His main book is called the flowers of Evil. This is hatred for the bourgeois world, anarchist rebellion, longing for harmony. The poet combines these feelings with the recognition of the invincibility of evil: ʼʼThe real travelers are those who set off on their journey, leaving the pastʼʼ

Naturalism. A transformation specific to the end of the 19th century is taking place with the realistic tradition - the rebirth of realism into naturalism. Supporters of this direction proceeded from the idea of the complete predestination of fate, will, the spiritual world of a person by the social environment, way of life, heredity, physiology. The largest representative and theorist of this trend is Emile Zola . Zola painted a wide panorama of French society, covering in it the life of all segments of the country's population. In his best novels, The Belly of Paris, The Trap, Germinal, Money, The Destruction, the writer depicted social contradictions with great realistic force. At the same time, the idea of the laws of society as biological laws limited his realism.

Impressionism. Under the influence of representatives of the painting of critical realism (Courbet, Daumier), a new direction in art appeared - impressionism (from the French. Impression - impression). The aesthetic attitudes of this direction were characterized by the desire to combine cognitive tasks with the search for new forms of expression of the unique subjective world of the artist, to convey their fleeting perceptions, to capture the real world in all its variability and mobility. Its history is relatively short - only 12 years. Representatives – Claude Manet, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley. A contemporary and colleague of the Impressionists was the great French sculptor Auguste Rodin

The main features of impressionism were developed in post-impressionism . Artists were prominent representatives of this trend. P. Cezanne, W. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin . Οʜᴎ began to work simultaneously with the Impressionists and experienced their influence in their work. Each of them, however, was a bright personality and left a deep mark on art.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the industrial structure of society meant a deep qualitative transformation not only of the nature of production, but also of the prevailing social structures and culture of society. The great shifts that took place in the 19th century development of philosophy, science and technology, had a huge impact on the development of literature and art in Western Europe.

The significance of the culture of the New Age for the development of world culture is seen in the following:

· formation of bourgeois society and industrial type of civilization. This era of bourgeois revolutions revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society;

· the formation and strengthening of a rationalistic approach to reality, which was reflected in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. The scientific achievements of the 17th century created the prerequisites for the further development of the fundamental sciences. The theory of knowledge becomes the main direction in the development of philosophical thought;

· Enlightenment awakened social thought and social feeling in Europe;

Great social upheavals. The French Revolution, which began as a triumph of Reason and did not affect the many-sided inner world of man, ended tragically;

· the formation of classical philosophy (late 18th - early 19th centuries) in Germany; the emergence of Marxism;

· The 19th century became a century of contrasts: the flourishing of spiritual culture and the spiritual impoverishment of society are marked not only by philosophy, but also by art, as well as by the human sciences that arise in this period;

· in the art of modern times, new styles and trends are being formed, striving to embody in their images a person as a deeply and strongly feeling being, as a freedom-loving and proud being;

· the artistic development of the world in the 19th century created a type of romantic and realistic hero. Art goes deeper into the understanding of the foundations of the world, while making a movement from ʼʼexceptionalʼʼ to ʼʼusualʼʼ, into the depths of the subjective perception of the world.

Western European culture of the 19th century. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Western European culture of the XIX century." 2017, 2018.

By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, a sharp leap took place in the development of material production - the industrial revolution. It was associated with the transition from manual production to machine production and from manufactory to factory. This transition began in England, and then it took place in France, Germany, Italy. Its main result was the final establishment of capitalism in Western Europe. Progress in the field of material production led to an increase in labor productivity and contributed to the successful development of the applied, exact and natural sciences. At the same time, it led to the rise and flourishing of the humanities, as well as great literature and great art. In the 19th century, a huge number of works appeared in Western Europe, which entered the treasury of the world.

A characteristic feature of the development of culture in the nineteenth century was the growth of international cultural exchange. It was due to the development of economic contacts, as well as the improvement of transport, communications and information.

In the 19th century, with the invention of electrical engineering, electrical methods of transmitting messages were invented. Bell (USA) invented the telephone. The largest stage in the development of communications was the invention (1895) by the Russian scientist A.S. Popov of radio communications. The greatest invention of the nineteenth century was the cinema.

It was in the 19th century that the first international congresses were convened, the first international exhibitions were organized, the number of translated publications expanded, and the number of people who studied foreign languages grew. Under these conditions, distances were reduced, interstate borders were weakened, and the horizons of people were expanding.

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS

Many European countries introduced compulsory primary education in the 19th century. So, in Sweden - in 1842, in Switzerland - in 1848, in 1877 - in Italy, Belgium, 1878. - in Holland, 1881 - in France. Secondary education was not available to the bulk of the population. Almost everywhere it was paid. In 1914, in Europe, 3% of teenagers graduated from high school. Higher education is becoming secular, and universities are turning into centers of new experimental science.

The 19th century brought outstanding successes in the development of especially exact and natural sciences. Mathematics has made great strides. Great discoveries were made in physics, one of the fundamental natural sciences. In the 20th century, the greatest new discoveries in natural science were made - the discovery of the electron, the nucleus, radioactivity, the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, etc. Almost all of these successes belong to Western European physicists.

Another fundamental natural science, chemistry, which studies the transformation of substances, also has great achievements in the 19th century. In the 19th century, the foundations of chemical atomistics (Dalton, Avogadro), the theory of compounds (Butlerov) were laid, and the periodic law was discovered (Mendeleev).

The greatest achievement of biology in the 19th century was the discovery of the cellular structure of all animals and plants (Schwann and Schleiden). The creation of an evolutionary theory, the establishment of the basic laws of development of the animal and plant world is the merit of the great English scientist Charles Darwin (1809-1882).

Thus, Western European scientists made a huge contribution to the development of the natural sciences, contributed to the establishment of a scientific picture of the world in the minds of people. And this led to an ever greater secularization of public consciousness. This was reflected in the development of the humanities, which made a huge leap during the 19th century. The nineteenth century is the century of the emergence of new ideas and ideologies.

There are 3 ideologies that remain leading in our time:

liberalism- (from Latin: free) - an ideological and political trend, whose supporters advocate the bourgeois-parliamentary system, democratic rights and freedoms of the individual, freedom of entrepreneurship.

conservatism- (from lat conservo - protect, preserve) - an ideological movement whose supporters are in favor of the outdated, obsolete, hostile and oppose progress, everything new, advanced in public life, science, etc.

Marxism- an ideological and political trend, the founder of which was K. Marx. This current, from the positions of the working class, criticized capitalism and justified its revolutionary transformation.

The 19th century was also marked by the emergence of the first political parties. Party - (from lat. partio - share, share) - a group of people united by a commonality of ideas, interests. A political party is a political organization expressing the interests of a certain social class. From the middle of the nineteenth century, the struggle for political dominance was carried out through political parties.

§ 50. Development of Western European culture

Revolution in the mind.

Revolutions of the late XVIII-XIX centuries. were prepared not only by changes in the life of society, but also by changes in the minds of people, in their worldview - the perception of the world around them. The opinion was spreading more and more that God does not directly influence the individual, his successes or failures in life. It all depends on effort, intelligence, work and perseverance. At the same time, it is unfair that the position of a person and the conditions of his life are predetermined by birth. All these ideas served as the moral justification for revolutions.

Literature.

At the end of the XVIII century. and the beginning of the 19th century. ideas of romanticism played an important role in European art. Romantics valued inspiration, immediacy of feelings, opposed the rules established by reason. The famous novel by Victor Hugo "Notre Dame Cathedral" became a kind of manifesto of the French romantics.

In the 20s. 19th century critical realism emerges. The writers and artists of the realistic trend show an interest in the multilateral reproduction of reality, in broad generalizations.

The reflection of the economic, political, moral contradictions of their time in artistic images is the merit of the writers of critical realism. The great writers - realists Frenchman Honore de Balzac and Englishman Charles Dickens in their novels comprehensively revealed the life of society.

Balzac imagined society as a system of violence against the natural passions of man, that is, as a continuous drama. The writer studied in depth the causes and effects, the laws of social life, and his attention was focused not on the catastrophes themselves, but on the conditions that caused them. Dickens considered it his duty to "show the harsh truth" of life in order to eliminate the evil that exists in it. Revealing the vices in the life of England, he showed the spiritual qualities of ordinary people who withstood difficult life tests.

The German poet Heinrich Heine - an "enthusiast of freedom" - began his career as a romantic. However, he turned to public issues, widely used folk motives. The pinnacle of Heine's work is his political poem Germany, a Winter's Tale. The poet laughed at those who tried to reassure the people with tales of the afterlife. Heine wanted to "turn the earth into heaven and make the earth a paradise".

An important phenomenon in the literature and art of the XIX century. was naturalism. Naturalists believed that facts are more valuable than the most beautiful fiction, and the writer must record the events of real life. The most prominent representative of naturalism was Emile Zola. In 1868, he began work on a 20-volume series of novels called Rougon-Macquart, which he finished a quarter of a century later.

Naturalism also influenced critical realism. The French writer Guy de Maupassant became famous thanks to the amazing skill of the novelist, the novels “Life”, “Dear Friend”, “Pierre and Jean”, etc. Lnatol France is a master of the philosophical and satirical story (“The Judgments of Mr. Jerome Coignard”, “Under the Roadside Elm” and etc.).

At the end of the XIX century. in literature, fine arts, architecture, theater, music, new styles and trends appear. There is a reassessment of values. Changes in the life of society, technological progress - all this required reflection, a new look. This task was approached in different ways by the art of realism and those that appeared in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. currents, united under the name of decadence (from the French. decadence - decline).

Symbolism - one of the most significant phenomena in the literature of decadence - was formed in France. The Symbolists called themselves singers of "decline, decline, doom", hopelessness and disillusionment. They abandoned the image of reality, preferring the "inner essence" to the external image, appearance. Symbolism is characterized by ambiguity, mystical allusions, images devoid of concreteness, orientation towards feelings. The most talented Symbolist poets in France were Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud. In England, the symbolists rallied around the Yellow Book magazine, with which Oscar Wilde, the most significant representative of English symbolism, was associated. He wrote fairy tales, satirical plays, and the intellectual novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. The Belgian playwright Maurice Maeterlinck contributed to the development of the tradition of symbolism in the theater (the fairy tale "The Blue Bird").

The English writer Herbert Wells, the creator of science fiction, wrote about the problems that technical progress can lead to, touched upon the responsibility of a scientist, pointed out the need to correlate progress and moral standards.

Art.

In the first half of the XIX century. the art of Western Europe largely followed the path of imitation of the great masters of the past. In France, the main representative of the painting of this time was Jacques Louis David. Jacques Auguste Ingres stood out from his students, who had to endure a stubborn struggle with the artists of the romantic direction. Eugene Delacroix was the first artist to embark on the path of romanticism.

Realistic traditions of the middle of the 19th century. associated with the name of Gustave Courbet, many of whose paintings are devoted to social topics. Political events were reflected in numerous etchings and lithographs by Honore Daumier, imbued with sympathy for the common people of Paris. Jean Millet depicted peasants in the bosom of nature.

England in the late 1940s. 19th century three young artists - Gian Everett Millee, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and William Holman Hunt - formed an alliance to fight against conventionality and imitation in contemporary painting. They called themselves Pre-Raphaelites, because they opposed the passion for the masters of the 16th century. naive and deep realism of the artists of the pre-Raphael time.

A striking event in the fine arts of the late XIX century. was the emergence of impressionism. Its origin is associated with the work of the Frenchman Edouard Manet, around whom a circle of young artists has formed. The impressionists are characterized by the desire to reflect the fleeting, changeable, random; convey light and air by means of painting.

Music.

Romanticism in the early 19th century widely distinguished himself in music. Romantic elements were closely intertwined with realistic ones. This interweaving is typical for the operatic work of Giuseppe Verdi. A romantic touch is also felt in an outstanding example of a realistic opera - "Carmen" by Georges Bizet.

Franz Schubert strove to embody in music a unique moment, a deep intimate experience - everything that is connected with the circle of human feelings. Robert Schumann created agitated, rebellious music, which reflected his sensitive reaction to life impressions. The music of Fryderyk Chopin is permeated with folk rhythms and intonations, ancient legends, and poetry.

In the music of the 70s - 80s. 19th century opera played an important role. This period includes the last works of Richard Wagner, who created the genre of musical drama. Wagner's influence extended even to composers who did not share his views on music.

major scientific discoveries.

Scientific discoveries have changed the perception of the world around us and influenced people's lives.

In the 20s. 19th century the largest discoveries in the field of electricity were made by André Ampère, thermoelectric phenomena were discovered in 1834 by Jean Peltier, and the electrical conductivity of substances was studied by Antoine César Becquerel.

The development of chemical science was marked by a number of fundamental discoveries. In 1811, Bernard Kurt a discovered iodine. In 1826 Antoine Jérôme Balard discovered bromine. In 1802, independently of each other, the English physicist John Dalton and the French physicist and chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac established the laws of thermal expansion of gases.

The experiments of James Joule gave an experimental justification for the law of conservation of energy. Joule and James Maxwell laid the foundations for the molecular-kinetic theory of thermal phenomena. The work of Joule and Joseph John Thomson on the cooling of gases as they expand marked the beginning of low temperature physics. Thomas Young revived the wave theory of light. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.

Organic chemistry developed rapidly, in which Justus Liebig played a special role. He divided all organic compounds into proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and in 1831, simultaneously with the French chemist E. Sudeirand, he obtained chloroform. Liebig developed the theory of fermentation and putrefaction. In 1801, the German physicist Johann Ritter and his English colleague William Wolaston proved the existence of ultraviolet rays. The reformer of technical optics was Josef Fraunhofer, who in 1814 described the lines of the solar spectrum. In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity. In 1826, the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm formulated the basic law of the electrical circuit, named after him. and Wilhelm Weber developed the absolute system of electromagnetic units. In 1y. Franz Neumann created the theory of electromagnetic induction.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. a real revolution took place in physics, which changed the ideas about time, space, motion, and the structure of matter.

The English physicist J. Maxwell developed a general theory of electrodynamics. Subsequently, Maxwell's positions were confirmed by the works of physicists all over the world (the discovery of electromagnetic waves by Heinrich Hertz, X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen, etc.).

The most important phenomenon in science was the discovery of the first elementary particle - the electron (Englishman George Paget Thomson). The Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorenz completed the creation of his electronic theory of matter. Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which was actively studied by Marie Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie. The foundation was laid for the creation of the physics of the atomic nucleus. English physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha, beta and gamma rays, which are released during the decay of radioactive elements.

Important discoveries were made in the field of theoretical chemistry. In 1y. The Russian scientist developed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements based on their "atomic weight and chemical similarity". Mendeleev predicted the properties of a number of yet undiscovered elements.

In 1856, an aniline dye was synthesized. A whole industry for the production of paints arose.

A revolution in natural science was caused by the book of the Englishman Charles Darwin "The Origin of Species". In it, he argued that all living nature was formed gradually, through a long evolution.

At the beginning of the XX century. American biologist Thomas Morgan studied the patterns of inheritance of traits discovered in the 60s. 19th century Czech scientist Gregor Mendel, but did not gain fame then. At the very end of the XIX century. William Betson coined the term "genetics". In 1y. Dutch scientist Hugo De Vries developed the theory of mutations (sudden changes in traits of properties in animals and plants with subsequent transmission of these changes by inheritance).

In the 80s. 19th century French chemist Louis Pasteur developed inoculations against chicken cholera, anthrax, and rabies. At the same time, he studied the pathogens of tuberculosis and cholera. Diphtheria and plague bacteria were discovered.

Automobiles and Aeronautics.

The first self-propelled machines were steam-powered cars. German engineer Karl Benz built and tested in 1885 the first car with an internal combustion engine. Benz's compatriot Gottlieb Daimler developed his own gasoline engine.

At the end of the XIX century. the long-standing dream of mankind about controlled aircraft was realized. First of all, it was possible to design controlled airships. In 1900, Ferdinand Zeppellin's airship, which had a rigid frame structure, made its first flight in Germany.

However, the future was for devices heavier than air - airplanes (airplanes). The first experiments in the design of aircraft with steam engines were carried out in Russia, Clement Ader in France, Hiram Maxim in the USA. The American brothers Wilber and Orville Wright first used a gasoline engine in aircraft construction in 1903.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. What trends existed in Western European literature of the 19th century?

2. Describe the work of the largest painters and composers of the XIX century.

3. What major scientific discoveries were made in the 19th century?

4. Make a table of artistic styles and trends of the late 19th - early 20th century, indicating the names of the cultural figures who worked within these styles. Why is it impossible to find an unambiguous place in such a table for some cultural figures?

DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS

There are 3 ideologies that remain leading in our time: