The philosophical category for designating objective reality is called. Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in sensation.

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Introduction

What is the world- this is the first philosophical question. Let us take a mental look at the objects and phenomena of nature. Here are the smallest particles and giant star systems, the simplest unicellular organisms and highly organized living beings. Objects differ in size, shape, color, density, structural complexity, composition and many other properties.

The material world surrounding a person represents an infinite number of objects and phenomena with a wide variety of properties. Despite the differences, they all have two important features:

1) they all exist independently of human consciousness;

2) are able to influence a person, be reflected by our consciousness.

In pre-Marxist philosophy, various concepts of matter developed: atomistic (Democritus), ethereal (Descartes), material (Holbach). “... Matter in general is everything that somehow affects our feelings” (Holbach. The system of nature). Common to all concepts was the identification of matter with its specific types and properties, or with the atom, as one of the simplest particles underlying the structure of matter.

In developing the scientific definition of matter, K. Marx and F. Engels had in mind the objective world as a whole, the totality of its constituent bodies. Based on the dialectical and historical materialism of Marx and Engels, V.I. Lenin further developed this doctrine, formulating the concept of matter in his work Materialism and Empirio-Criticism. “Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them.”

From the philosophical concept of matter, it is necessary to distinguish natural-science and social ideas about its types, structure and properties. Philosophical understanding of matter reflects the objective reality of the world, while natural-science and social representations express its physical, chemical, biological, and social properties. Matter is the objective world as a whole, and not what it consists of. Separate objects, phenomena do not consist of matter, they act as specific types of its existence, such as, for example, inanimate, living and socially organized matter, elementary parts, cells, living organisms, production relations, etc. All these types of existence of matter are studied by various natural, social and technical sciences.

The universal attributes and basic modes of existence of matter are movement, space and time. Matter is internally active, it is capable of qualitative changes, and this indicates that it is in motion. Motion is not accidental, but an inherent property of matter, and "embraces all the changes and processes taking place in the universe."

1. Definition of matter

First of all, let us pay attention to the fact that the above definition is a dialectical-materialistic solution of both sides of the main question of philosophy: matter exists outside and independently of any (individual or transpersonal) consciousness and, acting on the human senses (as and on any other objects) directly or indirectly produces a sensation.

The definition of matter is the most important element of its philosophical understanding (although the latter, of course, is not limited to a definition). So let's take a look at some of its features.

In logical terms, we note that the definition of the concept of "matter" as an extremely broad concept to some extent goes beyond the usual definitions of formal logic: it is defined through opposition to another extremely broad concept - "consciousness".

Therefore, it may seem that here we are dealing with a vicious circle: in order to know what matter is, you need to know what consciousness is (otherwise, the meaning of the term “objective” is unknown in the definition), but in order to know what consciousness is, you need to know that such is matter (because materialism treats it as a property of the latter). In this regard, it is necessary to find out what are the limits of the usual definitions of formal logic, in what sense and how far Lenin's definition of matter goes beyond them (especially since similar questions arise in the definition of all other philosophical categories).

Formalological (deductive) definition is the derivation of a particular (specific) concept from a general (generic) one by indicating a distinctive feature. A donkey, for example, is an animal with distinctive features known to all (in particular, with long ears).

In this regard, let us recall that the knowledge of what contradicts (and what does not) the laws of reality is a prerequisite for purposeful human activity. But the law is the general and essential in the relations of objects, phenomena, processes. Therefore, knowledge of the general and essential is extremely important. But they are inaccessible to direct sensory reflection. Here, when you need to know something that is inaccessible to sensation (and the device), and the need for conceptual knowledge arises. The indication of a generic concept in the definition fixes, let us pay attention, the general (and thus essential) in the object (or class of objects) under study.

Since every object has both general and individual properties, its conceptual description should include fixing not only the general, but also the individual, specific - to understand something, we emphasize, this means to understand it as a special manifestation of the general. That is why the meaningful definition of any concept includes an indication as a general (generic concept), i.e. fixing the class to which the defined belongs, as well as the single, i.e., specific differences (distinctive feature).

With this in mind, it is clear that in essence a deductive definition is a definition through opposition, negation. For what is a distinguishing mark? This is a fixation of what the defined has and what the other does not have. Here we have, therefore, the opposition of the defined to the other. Therefore, we emphasize that any definition contains an element of limitation, opposition, negation. Definition through opposition, negation is not a vicious circle.

“If the form of manifestation and the essence of things directly coincided,” K. Marx noted, “any science would be superfluous” - for here, when determining, for example, an object A, non-A appears. We have a vicious circle if the definition of A contains an indication of A, i.e. to what needs to be determined.

The fact is that it is possible to fix with a concept only that which in reality itself differs from the rest - if, for example, all animals in nature were donkeys, then it would be impossible to derive the concept of "donkey" from the concept of "animal" - in In this case, "animal" and "donkey" coincide in volume and content, being not different concepts, but only in different words, that is, synonyms.

Why is it impossible to do without negation when defining a concept? Yes, because conceptual knowledge is one of the forms of reflection of reality, but in the latter, opposites, as you know, determine each other. Therefore, it is possible to understand them, that is, to express them in concepts, only within the framework of correlation with each other.

Let us pay attention to the fact that the definition through the negation of the opposite is the definition through the negation of the negation. Only in this way do we get, emphasized Hegel, a true statement. To make it clear enough, let's compare the following, for example, judgments: "It can be said that ..." and "It is impossible not to say that ...". Which one is the true statement?

Returning to the definition of matter, we note that it is impossible to define all concepts deductively: firstly, there is an extremely broad concept; secondly, an attempt to define all concepts deductively leads, as it is easy to understand, into a "bad" infinity.

Therefore, in a logical sense, the definition of the concept of matter does not go too far beyond the usual definitions of formal logic - from the content side: both are given by opposition, negation, and the latter are moments not only of difference, but also of identity; on the formal side: this definition is generic. Even Aristotle found out that the concept of "reality" cannot be interpreted as generic. For in the deductive definition, the generic concept cannot coincide either with the specific concept (which has already been noted) or (which is obvious) with the distinguishing feature. An "animal" (returning to our example) is not a "donkey" or long ears. Therefore, if we try to take the concept of "reality" as a generic one, then neither any distinguishing feature nor any kind of specific concept can be considered as existing. This situation is quite understandable, because the concept of "reality" as an extremely general abstraction, fixing only the existence of certain (objective or subjective) objects, phenomena, processes, is obtained by abstracting from the specifics of the latter, by abstracting from everything concrete. (Accordingly, existence, pure being, in essence, does not differ, as has already been clarified, from non-existence). That is why it is impossible to derive anything from the concept of "reality". It is clear, therefore, that the definition of matter as the broadest of the substantive concepts can only be given through opposition to another extremely broad substantive concept - "consciousness" - the content of these concepts is given precisely by the indication of the difference between the objective and the subjective, the material and the ideal.

The foregoing makes it possible to understand that the philosophical concept of matter cannot be identified with particular scientific ideas about its structure and properties: matter as a subject of philosophical research is defined through opposition to consciousness, and the subject of natural science is the stable properties of objects and the persisting connections between them. The subject of natural science, in other words, is defined through opposition to change. (The latter, of course, does not mean that natural science does not study change; however, in the processes of change, it seeks first of all to reveal certain invariants).

2. Revolution in science and change of scientific pictures of the world.

Science is a sphere of human activity aimed at identifying, first of all, what is regular in the existence and development of objects, phenomena, processes (or some of their aspects). Modern science is a complex system.

A revolution in science occurs when phenomena are discovered that cannot be explained within the framework of existing scientific views (or when a phenomenon predicted by theory is not detected).

Then there is a need for a radical revision of the corresponding theory, for a radical change not only in the content of knowledge, but also in the style of scientific thinking. It is not easy to realize the inconsistency of the fundamental theory, which until recently seemed quite reliable. But something else is even more difficult. After all, if the former theory functioned as a theory, then it, therefore, really explained something, i.e. contained elements of objective truth. And these elements must be revealed, otherwise the further development of the theory will be impossible.

Therefore, the revolution in science has two sides: the destruction of the old scientific picture of the world, the stereotypes of thinking associated with it (by discovering erroneous ideas) and, on this basis, the formation of new knowledge that more accurately reflects objective reality. This is where dramatic ideological conflicts arise. After all, it is very difficult to part with habitual views ... And when the need for this becomes sufficiently obvious, the temptation is great to simply discard the previous concept as unsuccessful. Only a dialectical approach can help in such situations, considering, we recall, continuity as a condition for development. “It is not bare negation ... - noted V.I. Lenin, - that is characteristic and essential in dialectics, which ... contains an element of negation and, moreover, as its most important element, - no, but negation as a moment of connection, with the retention of positive ...".

Here it is important to take into account that truth as a correspondence between thought and object is a process, since in the course of his activity a person changes both reality and his understanding of the laws of its existence and development. In the course of a dialectically complex process of cognition, science penetrates deeper and deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied, more and more accurately reflects reality.

Therefore, a revolution in science, associated with a radical breakdown of the old and the formation of new ideas about certain areas of reality, is a natural stage in the development scientific knowledge. As a result, there is a change in the scientific picture of the world, which is the result of generalization and synthesis of knowledge in various fields of science. This picture of the world (based on the philosophical picture of the world as its integral and most general model) is formed under the predominant influence of the most developed ("leading") science - the "leader" of private scientific knowledge. For a long time, this was physics (today it shares this role with a number of other sciences), the achievements of which are associated with mechanical, electromagnetic, quantum relativistic pictures of the world. In the development of science (in its modern understanding), the following revolutions must first of all be singled out: the 17th century (the formation of classical natural science, which studies mainly objects and their simplest systems); late XIX - early XX centuries (the formation of non-classical science aimed at the study of complex systems); which began in the middle of the 20th century (the formation of post-non-classical science that studies complex self-organizing, self-developing systems).

The modern revolution in science is far from over and the problems associated with it are extremely complex. Therefore, we will briefly consider the features of the revolutionary stages in the development of scientific knowledge using the example of the revolution in natural science at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.

The most profound revolutionary changes took place during this period in physics. They were so fundamental that they gave rise not only to the crisis of physics, but also seriously affected its philosophical foundations. The most important discoveries that undermined the foundations of the mechanical picture of the world included, in particular, the detection of X-rays (1895), the radioactivity of uranium (1896), and the electron (1897). By 1903, we note that significant results were achieved in the study of radioactivity: its explanation as the spontaneous decay of atoms received a certain justification, and the convertibility of chemical elements was proved.

It was not possible to explain these (and some other) discoveries within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world; the insufficiency of the classical-mechanical understanding of physical reality became more and more obvious. This caused some confusion among a number of prominent physicists. So, A. Poincaré wrote about "signs of a serious crisis in physics", about the fact that before us are the "ruins" of its principles, their "general defeat". Some physicists considered that this indicates that the latter are not a reflection of reality, but only products of human consciousness that do not have an objective content. After all, if the fundamental principles of classical natural science (first of all, physics) had such, then how could there be a need for their radical revision?

Overcoming the difficulties faced by physics required (as always happens in a period of revolutionary changes in science) an analysis of not only physical, but also epistemological problems. As a result of intense discussions in physics, several schools have emerged that radically differ in their understanding of ways out of a crisis situation. Some of them began to focus on an idealistic worldview (although the majority of physicists, naturally, stood on the positions of spontaneous materialism), which the representatives of spiritualism and fideism tried to take advantage of. This led to the fact that the revolution in physics grew into its crisis. “The essence of the crisis of modern physics,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is in the breaking of old laws and basic principles, in the rejection of objective reality outside consciousness, i.e. in the replacement of materialism with idealism and agnosticism. “Matter has disappeared” - this can be expressed the main and typical difficulty in relation to many particular questions that created this crisis" 24 .

In order to understand what meaning some physicists put into the words "matter has disappeared", one must take into account the following. The atomistic worldview was affirmed in natural science for a long time and with difficulty. At the same time, an atom (in the spirit of Democritus) was understood as an absolutely indivisible (having no parts) elementary particle. The point of view, according to which matter consists of atoms, which were considered as some kind of "unchanging essence of things", was shared by the majority of natural scientists, including physicists, by the end of the 19th century. Therefore, discoveries that testified to the complexity of atoms (in particular, radioactivity as their spontaneous decay) were interpreted by some scientists as the "decay", "disappearance" of matter. On this basis, conclusions were drawn about the collapse of materialism and science oriented towards it.

IN AND. Lenin showed that what actually took place here was not the collapse of materialism as such, but only the collapse of its concrete, original form. After all, matter, understood as a kind of unchanging essence of things, is matter without movement, a category of non-dialectical materialism. In this regard, V.I. Lenin noted: “The recognition of any unchanging elements, the “unchanging essence of things,” etc. is not materialism, but is metaphysical, i.e. anti dialectical materialism". Dialectical materialism, on the other hand, considers matter as moving matter and therefore "insists on the approximate, relative nature of any scientific position on the structure of matter and its properties." moving matter is the substantive basis of reality, reflected by human consciousness.“Recognition of the theory,” emphasized V.I. Lenin, - a snapshot, an approximate copy from objective reality - this is what materialism consists of.

Therefore, the discovery that the structure of matter is much more complex than previously thought is by no means evidence of the failure of materialism. IN AND. Lenin explained in this connection: "Matter disappears" - this means that the limit to which we have known matter until now disappears ... such properties of matter disappear that previously seemed absolute, unchanged, original ... and which are now revealed as relative, inherent only in certain states of matter. For the only "property" of matter, with the recognition of which philosophical materialism is connected, is the property of being an objective reality, of existing outside our consciousness.

Let us note that the dialectics of the process of cognition was deeply understood by Hegel. He developed, in particular, the concept relative truth as limited truth, i.e. which is true only within certain limits. Materialist dialectics developed these ideas into the doctrine of objective truth, understanding by it the process of bringing knowledge closer to reality, in the course of which the synthesis of the positive that exists in individual relative truths is carried out. Objective truth is the unity of the latter, where they are present in a removed form, complementing and limiting each other. Classical mechanics, for example, is true if it is applied to macroobjects with nonrelativistic velocities. The theorems of Euclid's geometry are true when it comes to space with zero curvature. And modern physics includes classical mechanics, but, what is important, with an indication of the limits of its applicability. Modern geometry includes the geometry of Euclid in the same way. Etc.

An analysis of the problems associated with new discoveries in physics, as shown by V.I. Lenin, gives arguments against metaphysical materialism and in favor of dialectical materialism. But in order to understand this, in general to understand the essence of the problems generated by revolutionary changes in science, it is necessary to master the dialectical-materialist methodology. “Denying the immutability of the elements and properties of matter known until then,” V.I. Lenin noted, “they (physicists who are not familiar with dialectics - V.T.) slipped into the denial of matter ... Denying the absolute nature of the most important and basic laws, they rolled down to the denial of any objective regularity in nature, to the declaration of the law of nature as a mere convention ... Insisting on the approximate, relative nature of our knowledge, they rolled down to the denial of an object independent of cognition, approximately correctly, relatively correctly reflected by this cognition.

In other words, one of the reasons that gave rise to the crisis of physics is the understanding by some scientists of relative truth as only relative (this is epistemological relativism, which was born and largely overcome in ancient philosophy). However, what is essential is that "in every scientific truth, despite its relativity, there is an element of absolute truth." IN AND. Lenin analyzed a number of circumstances that contributed to the emergence of "physical idealism."

An important role was played here by the complexity of epistemological problems associated with the mathematization of physics. In particular, the complication (in comparison with classical mechanics) of the mathematical apparatus of electrodynamics. As a result, the physical picture of the world has lost its former visibility, and the connection between physical theories and experience has become much more indirect. By the beginning of the twentieth century, in addition, theoretical physics in a number of its sections became mathematical physics. But mathematics, due to its high degree of abstraction, is characterized by a much greater independence from experience than is the case in most other sciences. Therefore, a number of scientists considered the nature of mathematics to be purely logical, and its subject as an arbitrary creation of the mind of a mathematician. Today, the vulnerability of such a position is quite obvious 35 .

Finishing the consideration of the analysis of V.I. Lenin of the crisis of physics, let us pay attention to the following. His position that "the only 'property' of matter, with the recognition of which philosophical materialism is associated, is the property of being an objective reality" is sometimes taken as an indication that, according to materialist dialectics, matter has only the specified single property. But this is not so: we are only talking here about the fact that the only "property" of matter, the non-recognition of which is associated with philosophical idealism, is objectivity. Therefore, it is appropriate here once again to emphasize the inadmissibility of identifying the dialectical-materialistic category of "matter" with natural-science ideas about its structure and properties. The misunderstanding of this by the majority of scientists (who stood mainly on the positions of spontaneous materialism) at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries was one of the main causes of the crisis in natural science.

These questions have been well studied. But even today there is a repetition of the considered epistemological errors. So, I.D. Rozhansky, referring to some of Plato's considerations about the structure of matter, writes: "We can say that here we are present at the birth of the concept of matter, and that is why Plato's statements are so cautious and vague. But let's try to ask ourselves: how far have we gone from Plato in understanding matter "We say philosophically that matter is an objective reality that exists independently of our consciousness 36 and is given to us in our sensations. But what is matter in the physical plane? In the last century, it was much easier for physicists to answer this question ... Now , in the 20th century, when physics operates with such concepts as virtual particles, states with negative energy ... the concept of physical matter has become much more indefinite, and physicists can relate with involuntary sympathy to the words of Plato that "having designated it as an invisible , a formless and all-perceiving species, participating in the conceivable in an extremely strange way and extremely elusive, we will not be very mistaken.

As for the first of the questions posed here, it must be answered quite definitely: the materialist dialectic in understanding matter has gone quite far from Plato. So much, in any case, not to say that the concept of physical "matter" in the 20th century "has become much more indefinite." "Matter" in the physical plane is a specific substrate basis of interactions studied by physics, quantitatively and qualitatively determined, possessing the attribute of action. For a physicist, it is "elusive, invisible and formless" only in so far as it has not been studied. Raising the question of the universal substantial basis of physical research necessarily takes us beyond the bounds of physics into the realm of philosophy. If, however, we identify the philosophical concept of matter with natural-science ideas about its structure and properties (and even from the point of view of the limitations of these ideas), then the inevitable result of such an operation is indeed, as shown by V.I. Lenin, is the transformation of matter into something invisible, formless and extremely elusive - in a word, "the disappearance of matter."

Considering the problems associated with the crisis of natural science at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, let us pay attention to the fact that crisis situations arose in it before, ending with a revolutionary transition to a new, deeper level of knowledge. Fundamental difficulties arose whenever science, deepening the analysis of the essence of phenomena, revealed a contradiction that the existing theory could not explain. The need to remove it also led to the intensive development of a new theory, a new scientific picture of the world. (Dialectics, we recall, considers contradiction as a source of development).

Aristotle, for example, believed (and for two thousand years it was considered so in science) that movement at a constant speed requires the action of a constant force. This point of view came into conflict with the material of the natural sciences of the New Age, which was resolved by Newton's physics. At the same time, the absolute opposition of movement and rest was removed. This situation is typical. Thus, the special theory of relativity created by A. Einstein removed the incompatibility (in classical mechanics) of the principle of relativity and the principle of absoluteness of the speed of light.

This is important to highlight, since the crisis of physics at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. was associated, in particular, with the discovery of the phenomenon of radioactivity, which seemed incompatible with the idea of ​​the atomic structure of matter. A very difficult situation has arisen.

On the one hand, there was a lot of material, both empirical and theoretical, in favor of the concept of the indivisibility of atoms. Let us single out one of the considerations expressed by Democritus. He pointed out that the recognition of matter as infinitely divisible means the assertion that every material object has parts. But for these to be truly different parts, they must be separated from each other by empty gaps... In other words, if matter is infinitely divisible, then at any point of any object we will find an empty gap. Matter thus disappears. This consideration was repeated by S. Clark (and, in fact, by Newton) in his polemic with G. Leibniz. It is also important to remember that outside the framework of the assumption of discreteness of matter, motion, space and time, it is impossible to overcome Zeno's arguments.

On the other hand, the discovery of radioactive decay cast doubt on the indisputability of the empirical foundations for understanding atoms as indivisible. (But, let's pay attention, it did not cast doubt on the views of Democritus - it simply turned out that particles that were not considered as atoms were considered). As for theoretical doubts about the possibility of the existence of Democritanian atoms, they have existed since the time of Plato. The fact is that absolutely indivisible (structureless) atoms cannot have sizes and shapes and, accordingly, interact with each other, forming an extended manifold (thing), since they can neither touch parts (which they do not have), nor coincide.

Thus, by the beginning of the XX century. in physics, a very difficult situation really developed: from the point of view of both empirical and theoretical material at its disposal, matter could not be recognized as either infinitely or finitely divisible ... Not finding ways to resolve this contradiction, some scientists began to lean towards understanding radioactive the decay of atoms as the decay of matter, which, in fact, led to a crisis in natural science. Had its representatives mastered dialectics, the revolution in natural science might not have been accompanied by a crisis. Dialectics, we note, in such situations can serve as a very significant methodological guide, because it "is the study of contradictions in the very essence of objects" 40 - it has accumulated and generalized vast experience in analyzing contradictions and ways to overcome them. And the problem of the ratio of discrete and continuous in general view was essentially resolved by Hegel.

3. Modern natural science ideas about the structure of matter and its properties.

The main thing here is that the philosophical approach to matter cannot be identified with the natural sciences, one cannot be substituted for one another (this has already been discussed above). But it is unacceptable to separate them from each other, and even more so to oppose them. The fact is that the philosophical concept of "matter" expresses the most general property of material phenomena - to be an objective reality that has the attribute of action, while natural science ideas about the structure and properties of matter are associated with consideration of specific aspects of objects. Therefore, the relationship between the philosophical and the natural sciences in the understanding of matter can be briefly characterized as follows: unity, complementarity and mutual enrichment, because the individual and the general are in dialectical unity.

The core of the problems discussed is the doctrine of the inexhaustibility of matter. Its essence, materialistically rethinking Hegel's dialectic, was formulated by F. Engels: "The new atomistics differs from all previous ones in that it ... does not assert that matter is only discrete, but recognizes that the discrete parts of various levels (ether atoms, chemical atoms, masses, celestial bodies) are various nodal points that determine various qualitative forms of the existence of universal matter ... ". This is how dialectical materialist philosophy solves the problem of the structure of matter. This means the recognition of the multi-quality and multi-component nature of both matter in general and any material object.

The Milesian school has already shown that a substance can be neither of the same quality nor without quality: in both cases, being devoid of internal differences, it turns out to be homogeneous, incapable of self-motion, of generating any kind of relatively isolated objects. Thus, as a substantial basis for the diversity of changing things, matter must be multi-qualitative and multi-component.

Therefore, in the philosophical analysis of modern natural-science ideas about the structure of matter, attention should first of all be paid to the question of the relationship between matter and field. It is not difficult to verify that the latter are in dialectical unity.

Thus, the field does not exist without matter, because every field has a material source. And matter does not exist without a field: the denial of this inevitably leads to the idea of ​​long-range action. Its unacceptability for science was already well understood by Newton (although he was forced to use it). “To assume,” he noted, “that ... a body can act on another at any distance in empty space, transmitting action and force without the mediation of anything, is ... such an absurdity that is unthinkable for anyone who knows enough understand philosophical subjects. If we talk about modern physics, then the following is important: “In classical mechanics, the field is only a certain way of describing ... the interaction of particles. In the theory of relativity, due to the finiteness of the propagation velocity of interactions, the state of things changes significantly. The forces acting in this moment on particles are not determined by their location at the moment. A change in the position of one of the particles affects the other particles only after a certain period of time. This means that the field itself becomes a physical reality."

In addition, the field and matter pass into each other. The transformation of a particle and antiparticle into electromagnetic radiation during their interaction is called annihilation. At the same time, there is no transformation of matter "into nothing" at all: it is not "matter" that turns, but matter, and not into "nothing", but into an electromagnetic field, when the conservation laws are fulfilled. The attempts sometimes made to give an idealistic interpretation of this phenomenon are groundless. Both before and after "annihilation" we have moving matter: both substance and field are objective reality given to us in sensation. There is also a reverse reaction of the creation of matter and antimatter by an electromagnetic field.

Here, the unity of corpuscular and wave properties of matter (corpuscular-wave dualism) revealed by modern physics requires attention: every material object has both corpuscular and wave properties. The degree of their manifestation naturally depends on the nature of the object and the conditions in which it is located.

According to the dialectical-materialist doctrine of the inexhaustibility of matter, any material object is multi-qualitative and multi-component. This obviously cannot be fully confirmed or refuted empirically. Therefore, let's pay attention to the following.

Let's assume (taking the point of view of Democritus) that the substantial basis of material things is absolutely elementary particles. An absolutely indivisible (and, therefore, having no parts) object cannot have sizes and shapes, because its “beginning” is in no way separated from its “end” ... (According to Euclid, we recall, a point is “that which has no parts "). Therefore, we note: the length of the object expresses its structure. It is also important that an absolutely elementary object that does not have an internal structure, a definite structure, cannot have any properties at all. Indeed, within the framework of the assumption under consideration, there is no answer to the question: why does this elementary entity have exactly these properties? That is, what “more elementary” qualities lead to these properties of the object under consideration?

Here we need to pay attention to the fact that Democritus's (and Newton's) criticism of the assumption of the possibility of infinite divisibility (infinite complexity in the intensive sense) of matter contained two assumptions that are not necessary.

First, Democritus believed that the parts of an object can differ only when separated by emptiness. Thus, he considered atoms as homogeneous, having no internal differences. And if they are conceived as corporeal, finite and having a form, then the external condition, which presupposes the separateness of their being, necessarily appears as an infinite and formless negation of corporality (absolute emptiness). Therefore, the atomistic concept is not the result, but the premise of Democritus' reasoning: it contains a vicious circle.

Secondly, Democritus believed that the part is always less than the whole. Today it is clear that this is not always the case. From the natural-science point of view, it suffices here to refer to the mass defect. In terms of philosophy, we note: to exist means to interact, and therefore an absolutely isolated object does not exist for outside world, and the quasi-isolated one interacts with it to the extent of its openness. Therefore, it is possible that the "elementary" particles of modern physics (the structure of some of them has been established) are huge, but almost closed material systems (friedmons).

Thus, the inexhaustibility of matter does not mean its "bad" continuity (although it contains the latter as a subordinate moment) - this, in essence, was proved by Democritus. In other words, he proved “only” that matter of the same quality cannot be infinitely divisible, that every quality exists within certain quantitative limits. This is very important for understanding the dialectics of quantity and quality. The inexhaustibility of matter means that its structure is infinitely complex both quantitatively and qualitatively - "bad" continuity is present in the dialectical-materialistic understanding of matter only as a removed moment.

Thus, we are talking about the unity of discontinuity and continuity in the structure of matter, and the thesis about the structure of any object is not reduced to pointing only to its infinite complexity in quantitative terms, infinite divisibility. If only the latter took place, then the world would be unknowable (already Aristotle understood that in this case the knowledge of any phenomenon would inevitably go to the "bad" infinity). Therefore, let us pay attention, the solution of a certain cognitive task involves the study of the structure of the object to a certain limit. IN AND. Lenin emphasized that the study of the causes of phenomena requires the discovery of the substantial basis of the latter. It makes no sense, for example, to study the structure of the atom by studying biological objects: although these objects are composed of atoms, their properties are relatively independent of the properties of atoms. Atoms are the substantial basis of biological objects - both herbivores and carnivores (for example) consist of the same atoms, and therefore the explanation of their features should not be sought in the properties of atoms ...

Therefore, we must not forget about the integrity, the systemic nature of the properties of the objects under study. A system property is a property inherent in the system, but not inherent in its elements, and therefore not reducible to the sum of their properties. The properties of water, for example, are very different from the properties of the molecules that form it, and even more so - atoms. Therefore, quite a lot was known about its properties long before finding out what H 2 O is. At the same time, only knowledge of the structure of an object makes it possible to understand its properties as a manifestation of its structure. Therefore, the concept of substance cannot be absolutized. The "essence" of things or "substance", - noted V.I. Lenin, are also relative; they express only the deepening of human knowledge of objects, and if yesterday this deepening did not go beyond the atom, today it goes beyond the electron and ether, then dialectical materialism insists on the temporary ... character of all these milestones in the knowledge of nature ... The electron is as inexhaustible as atom, nature is infinite.

The substantiation of the thesis about the inexhaustibility of matter once again shows the unacceptability of defining this category through the enumeration of "elementary" particles studied by physics - a mixture of philosophical and particular scientific will always (when "more elementary" particles are discovered) lead to an unjustified conclusion about the "disappearance" of matter.

4. Worldview and methodological significance of the concept of matter for the development of philosophy and particular sciences.

Let us pay attention to the fact that the role of the worldview, philosophical attitudes of the scientist is by no means an episodic role. It is also very significant in his analysis of specific cognitive problems, setting a certain angle of view on them and determining the approach to their solution. In the history of science there are many vivid examples of this. Thus, the orientation towards the subjective-idealistic aspects of Kant's philosophy prevented K. Gauss from understanding the real significance of his results in the study of the axiomatics of geometry. Only N.I. Lobachevsky, having received the same results later, was able, relying on Schelling's dialectic, to create a non-Euclidean geometry. The leading scientists W. Ostwald and E. Mach did not recognize, due to their subjective-idealistic attitudes, the existence of atoms. The discovery of the neutrino by V. Pauli was predicted by his belief in the indestructibility and indestructibility of matter...

In the light of the foregoing, it is quite obvious that the role of Lenin's definition of the concept of matter is very important, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for building a scientific picture of the world, solving the problem of reality and cognizability of objects and phenomena of the micro- and mega-world.

The dialectical-materialist doctrine of matter is also extremely significant for the scientific analysis of social phenomena and processes: it is based on a materialistic understanding of history (and in society there is an objective reality - relations associated with material production and its material elements), which forms the basis community development which is reflected in human consciousness. (Here it is important to pay attention to the fact that the materialistic thesis "being determines consciousness" can be justified only for a social person, i.e. only in the form of the thesis " social being determines public consciousness).

5. Matter, motion and development

Matter is an objective reality, the essence of which is represented by various types of motion, which is its attribute. Thus, in the world there is nothing but movement, all available building material is movement. Matter is woven from motion. Any particle of any substance is an ordered movement of micromotions; any event is a certain movement of the elements of the system of movements. Any phenomenon, event or substance can be mentally decomposed into different types of motion, just as any phenomenon, event or substance of Matter is synthesized from different types of motion in accordance with certain Laws. Therefore, in order to know how this happens, it is necessary to study the Laws that govern different types of motion of Matter.

Until now, the motion of Matter has been mainly associated only with its motion in space and time, while the attention of researchers has been mainly focused on the technical problems of calculating and measuring spatial distances and time intervals, while neglecting the fundamental problems of space and time.

However, as you know, the first fairly clear positive ideas about what Space and Time are were expressed by Greek thinkers of the classical period (the geometry of Apollonius, Euclid, Archimedes, ideas about time by Aristotle and Lucretius). Since the time of Galileo, and especially since the time of Newton, space and time have become integral parts of the World and the scientific view of the World. Moreover, the physical space began to be interpreted using the geometry of Euclid, and time was interpreted by analogy with the geometric coordinate. The purpose of science was to describe and explain things and their changes in space and time. Space and time were mutually independent and constituted an objective, precisely defined and given background to us from the very beginning. Everything could change except for the space-time coordinate system itself. This system seemed so immutable that Kant regarded it as a priori and, moreover, as a product of intellectual intuition.

The understanding of the relativity of motion was already achieved at the time of Descartes, since all the equations of motion and their solutions were written in certain coordinate systems, and the coordinate system is a conceptual, not a physical object. Therefore, although the motion was relativized in a coordinate system, the latter was considered as fixed in absolute space.

And only about a hundred years ago, the idea was first expressed that any movement should be attributed to some frame of reference. And although what was proposed was a model of a physical reference system made using a geometric coordinate system and therefore it did not entail any changes in mathematics, but was only a semantic change, but this was enough to discard the concept of absolute space. Figuratively speaking, after that it was already possible to assume that if only one body existed in the Universe, it could not move, because movement is possible only with respect to some material reference system. That is why, quite independently of the acting forces, the concept of motion began to be implied for a system having at least two bodies. And if the universe were completely empty, then there would be neither space nor time. Physical space exists only if there are physical systems (bodies, fields, quantum mechanical entities, etc.). In the same way, time exists only insofar as these systems change in one way or another. A static universe would have spatial features, but would be devoid of time.

Thus, the rational philosophy of space and time, in contrast to the purely mathematical theory of space and time, began to proceed from the assumption that space is a system of specific relations between physical objects, and time is some function of the changes occurring in these objects. In other words, it has become a relational rather than an absolute theory of space and time.

The next stage in the evolution of the theory of motion was Einstein's special theory of relativity, created in 1905, which showed:

a) that space and time are not mutually independent of each other, but are components of some higher-order unity called space-time, which breaks down into space and time with respect to a certain frame of reference;

b) that extensions and durations are not absolute, that is, not independent of the frame of reference, but become shorter or longer precisely depending on the motion of the frame of reference;

c) that there are no more purely spatial vector quantities and simple scalars: three-dimensional vectors become the spatial components of four-dimensional vectors, the time components of which are akin to the old scalars. In this case, the fourth coordinate is assigned a completely different meaning than the other three coordinates, and the time component of the space-time interval has its own own sign, which is opposite to the sign of the spatial components.

For these and other reasons, time in special relativity is not equivalent to space, although it is closely related to it. The special theory of relativity has added practically little to the concretization of the concept of motion, since space and time do not play a more significant role in it than in pre-relativistic physics; this theory doesn't really say anything about what spacetime is besides what it says about its metric properties. The philosophical aspect of space and time is not affected by it. The theory of gravity, or Einstein's general theory of relativity, written in 1915, contributed to the knowledge of the physical properties of space-time motion.

According to this theory, space and time are not only relational (and not absolute) and relative (that is, relative to the frame of reference), but they also depend on everything that the world consists of. Thus, the metric properties of space-time (that is, the space-time interval and the curvature tensor) must now be considered as dependent on the distribution of matter and field in the Universe: the higher the density of matter and field, the more curved space, the more curved the trajectories of rays and particles, and the faster the clock. According to the general theory of relativity, a body or a beam of light generates gravitational fields, while the latter react to the former. Interaction affects the structure of space-time. If all bodies, fields, and quantum mechanical systems were to disappear, then, as predicted by the fundamental equations of general relativity, space-time would not only remain in existence, but would retain its Riemannian structure. But it would not be physical space-time. What would be left would be a mathematical frame of reference and would not have any physical sense. On the whole, the general theory of relativity, due to its difficult to understand mathematical apparatus, has not yet received an appropriate philosophical generalization.

In fact, the same can be said about physical research that studies the processes occurring in the Universe as a whole. In recent decades, cosmology has ceased to be a separate independent science and has become the highest applied field of physics - megaphysics, which deals with the problems of space-time in its entirety: outer space and eternity in general. However, in order to present the evolution of the Universe as a whole over several time epochs and give preference to one of the many advocated hypotheses of its formation, astrophysical argumentation is still not enough and this can only be done with the help of serious philosophical research, excluding various anti-scientific guesses.

In this way, human knowledge has now reached such a limit when our ideas about space and time are no longer purely natural sciences and are increasingly turning into philosophical problems, the solution of which will finally allow us to answer such fundamental questions: what is space and time, how are they related to being and formation, what is their role in the development of material forms in general.

For a dialectical understanding of the structure and development of matter, it is necessary to emphasize the following: movement in space is closely connected with movement in time - without movement in time there can be no movement in space. Movement in space has a dual character. First, it includes the movement of a material point or system relative to another point or reference system, that is, relative spatial movement. It can proceed only in a volume of space that is more extensive in comparison with the elements of motion and is characteristic only for material points or subsystems moving within this space. At the same time, the own spatial volume of the motion elements themselves remains constant and they only sequentially occupy the volume necessary for them inside the hyperspace, freeing exactly the same volume behind them. Relative displacements of units of a photon, a molecule, a car or a planet can serve as examples of the relative type of motion in space-time.

However, the movement of these material points and bodies, considered in isolation from the entire system of homogeneous units, is a special case of the movement of the elements of this system in hyperspace. In other words, if a molecule of a gaseous substance, moving, consistently occupies the same volume of space S (at the same time, and the occupied volume itself, that is, is constant, is equal to a conventional unit), then the system of molecules is a conventional gas, flying apart in different directions, in the absence of the closure of the volume, it occupies an increasing space (at the same time, for each time interval, and the propagation velocity in space is equal). Such spatial movement should be called absolute and it characterizes the spatial area occupied by a material system of homogeneous interconnected units. An example of this movement is the diffusion of gases and liquids, the scattering of light photons from their source, etc. If the first, relative type of movement in space is studied in natural science research, then for the philosophical understanding of the Dialectic of Matter, its second type, absolute, that is, the total spatial movement of all systemically interconnected homogeneous elements, is more important. Finishing a brief digression into the "space", we will clarify its relative commensurability for various system formations. In everyday practice, the usual "meter" is used to measure space. However, the distance to one of the visible distant galaxies is already expressed as 10 25 m. At the same time, the proton diameter is 10 -15 m. Therefore, there is no reason to disagree with the logical conclusion that all the expanses of space surrounding us can be expressed by any of the values ​​from 10 -15 m. n to 10 n meters, where n can take any value from 0 to. This is the universality of space, and with it the forms of existence of Matter: from infinity deep to infinity into the hypersphere. V Everyday life usually operate with values ​​from 10 -4 m (thickness of a sheet of paper) to 10 6 m. However, from the fact that we are not able to measure distances less than 10 -30 and more than 10 at does not exist.

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Solving the problem of reality and cognizability of objects and phenomena of the micro- and mega-world. Definition of matter by K. Marx, F. Engels and V. Lenin. The study of matter as one of the fundamental concepts of philosophy. Study of the specifics of space and time.

Matter should be considered first of all as a substance on and thanks to which all relations and changes in the world are built, including consciousness.

The very category of matter, like any general concept, is an abstraction, a creation of pure thought. But this is not absurd, but a scientific abstraction. An attempt to find matter in general as a kind of material or incorporeal principle is fruitless. When the goal is set to find uniform matter as such, then a situation is created like tai, if one wanted to see fruit as such instead of cherries, pears, apples, instead of cats, dogs and sheep, etc. - mammal as such, gas as such, metal as such, chemical compound as such, movement as such. The modern philosophical concept of matter should reflect the universal features of an infinite number of sensually perceived things. Matter does not exist apart from things, their properties and relations, but only in them and through them. Therefore, it is important to fix such properties of matter that would fundamentally distinguish it within the framework of the basic question of philosophy from consciousness as its own opposite. Such a definition of matter was proposed by V.I. Lenin in the book "Materialism and Empiriocriticism": "Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them." In this definition, the idea that had already been outlined by Holbach and was developed by some other thinkers (in particular, N.G. Chernyshevsky and G.V. Plekhanov) was completed.

Here matter is defined through a comparison of the spiritual and the material. Matter is eternal, exists outside of human consciousness and is completely indifferent to what we think about it. The concept of matter is only an approximate reflection of this objective reality. That is, the concept of matter in general is not a formal designation, not a conventional symbol for a multitude of things, but a reflection of the essence of each of them and their totality, the basis of being that exists in everything and generates everything that exists. Philosophy / ed. Yu.A. Kharin. - Mn., 2006 ..

So, matter is, first of all, a reality, an objective reality that exists outside and independently of a person, but it is such a reality that can be detected only through sensations (of course, sensory reflection can be direct or indirect devices - be it a microscope, a telescope, a synchrophasotron and etc.). This definition of matter expresses the essence of materialism as a doctrine. It is a further development of the fundamental question of philosophy, and this is its ideological significance.

Matter, being an objective reality, is primary in relation to consciousness. It does not presuppose any cause or condition for its existence, but, on the contrary, is itself the only cause of consciousness. Matter is what B. Spinoza called the cause of itself. At the same time, matter is not some kind of supersensory, supernatural reality, it is given to a person in sensations (directly or indirectly with the help of devices), which, in turn, makes it accessible to knowledge.

Matter, as the root cause of everything that exists, realizes its essence through an infinite set of concrete existences, starting from elementary objects of inanimate nature and ending with the most complex social systems.

In the analyzed definition of matter, two aspects are revealed - ontological and epistemological. From an ontological point of view, matter is the only subject of any existence. Things, properties, interactions, bodily and spiritual processes have their ultimate cause in matter. The absolute opposition of the material and the spiritual is thus possible only within the framework of the fundamental question of philosophy. From the epistemological point of view, matter is an object, subject and means of cognition, and sensations, thinking are its product.

The category of matter is the most important methodological regulator, since the consistent upholding of the materialistic worldview turns out to be essential in concrete scientific research. One should not confuse here the philosophical concept of matter with the historically changing natural science concepts of the structure and properties of certain fragments of the observable world. Science can reflect the details of the structure and state of individual systemic material objects with mathematical accuracy. The philosophical approach is characterized by the fact that it abstracts from the properties of individual things and their aggregates, and sees its material unity in the diversity of the world. Philosophy / ed. Yu.A. Kharin. - Mn., 2006 ..

The methodological role of the category of matter has importance, firstly, because with the progress of specific sciences, old questions arise about understanding the objective world and its laws, about the relationship of concepts and theories to objective reality. Secondly, the study of specific material forms, along with private questions, puts forward a lot of problems of a philosophical nature, such as the ratio of discontinuity and continuity of being, the inexhaustibility of the knowledge of objects.

The concretization of the concept of "being" is carried out, first of all, in the concept of "matter". It is clear that the problems of matter, including its concept, were developed primarily by materialist philosophers from ancient to modern. The most complete and profound development of these problems is contained in the works of contemporary materialists. In materialistic philosophy, "matter" appears as the most general, fundamental category in which the material unity of the world is fixed; various forms of being are considered as generated by matter in the course of its movement and development. The definition of the concept of "matter" was given by V. I. Lenin in his work "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism" (1909).

“Matter,” Lenin wrote, “is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them.”

Let's take a closer look at this definition. The category "matter" designates an objective reality. But what does "objective reality" mean? This is all that exists outside of human consciousness and independently of it. So, the main property of the world, fixed with the help of the category "matter", is its independent existence, independent of man and cognition. In the definition of matter, in essence, the main question of philosophy, the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness, is solved. And at the same time, the priority of matter is affirmed. It is primary in relation to consciousness. Primary in time, because consciousness arose relatively recently, and matter exists forever; It is also primary in the sense that consciousness is a historically emerging property of highly organized matter, a property that appears in socially developed people.

Matter is primary as the object of reflection is primary in relation to its display, as the model is primary in relation to its copy. But we know that the basic question of philosophy has a second side. It is the question of how thoughts about the world relate to the world itself, the question of whether the world is knowable. In the definition of matter, we find the answer to this question. Yes, we know the world. Lenin in his definition focuses on sensations as the primary source of knowledge. This is due to the fact that in the work named Lenin criticizes empirio-criticism, a philosophy for which the problem of sensation was of particular importance. Although, in essence, we are talking about the problem of the cognizability of the world, the cognizability of matter. Therefore, we can give a shorter definition of matter: matter is a cognizable objective reality.

Of course, such a definition is very general and does not indicate any other properties of matter, except for its existence outside and independently of consciousness, as well as its knowability. However, we have the right to speak about some properties of matter that have the character of attributes, i.e., properties that are always and everywhere inherent in both all matter and any material objects. These are space, time and movement. Since all things exist in space, move in space, and at the same time the very existence of a person and the things around him proceeds in time, the concepts of "space" and "time" were formulated and used for a long time.

The categories "space" and "time" are among the fundamental philosophical and general scientific categories. And naturally, they are such primarily because they reflect and express the most general state of being.

Time characterizes, first of all, the presence or absence of being of certain objects. There was a time when I, who is writing these lines (as well as you, dear reader), simply did not exist. Now we are. But there will come a time when you and I will be gone. The sequence of states: non-existence - existence - non-existence and fixes the category of time. The other side of being is the simultaneous existence of different objects (in our simple example, this is mine and yours, reader), as well as their simultaneous non-existence. Time also fixes the relative terms of existence, so that for some objects it can be greater (longer), and for others - less (less long). In the well-known parable from the "Captain's Daughter" by A.S. Pushkin, the lifetime of a raven was determined to be three hundred years, and an eagle - thirty. In addition, time allows you to fix periods in the development of an object. Childhood - adolescence - youth - adulthood - old age - all these phases in human development have their own time frames. Time is an integral part of the characteristics of all processes of existence, change, movement of objects, without being reduced to any of these characteristics. It is this circumstance that makes it difficult to understand time as a universal form of being.

The situation is somewhat simpler with the understanding of space, if it is taken in the ordinary sense, as the receptacle of all things and processes. More difficult problems associated with the evolution of the physical concepts of space and time will be discussed below.

Philosophical analysis of the problems of space, time and movement we find in ancient philosophy. These problems began to be considered and discussed in more detail in science in the 17th century, in connection with the development of mechanics. At that time, mechanics analyzed the motion of macroscopic bodies, that is, those that were large enough to be seen and that could be observed as in natural state(for example, when describing the motion of the Moon or planets), and in the experiment.

The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was the founder of experimental and theoretical natural science.

He considered in detail the principle of relativity of motion. The movement of the body is characterized by speed, i.e., the size of the path traveled per unit of time. But in the world of moving bodies, speed turns out to be a relative value and dependent on the frame of reference. So, for example, if we ride a tram and pass through the cabin from tailgate to the driver's cabin, then our speed relative to the passengers sitting in the cabin will be, for example, 4 km per hour, and relative to the houses that the tram passes by, it will be equal to 4 km / h + the speed of the tram, for example, 26 km / h . That is, the definition of speed is associated with the frame of reference or with the definition of the body of reference. Under normal conditions, for us, such a reference body is the surface of the earth. But it is worth going beyond its limits, as it becomes necessary to establish that object, that planet or that star, relative to which the speed of the body is determined.

Considering the problem of determining the motion of bodies in general terms, the English scientist Isaac Newton (1643-1727) took the path of maximum abstraction of the concepts of space and time, expressing the conditions of motion. In his main work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), he raises the question: is it possible to indicate in the Universe a body that would serve as an absolute reference body? Newton understood that not only the Earth, as it was in the old geocentric systems of astronomy, cannot be taken as such a central, absolute reference body, but the Sun, as was accepted in the Copernican system, cannot be considered as such. An absolute reference body cannot be specified. But Newton set the task of describing absolute motion, and not limiting himself to describing the relative velocities of bodies. In order to solve such a problem, he took a step, apparently as brilliant as it was erroneous. He put forward abstractions that had not previously been used in philosophy and physics: absolute time and absolute space.

“Absolute, true, mathematical time in itself and in its very essence, without any relation to anything external, flows uniformly and is otherwise called duration,” wrote Newton. In a similar way, he defined absolute space: "Absolute space, by its very essence, regardless of anything external, always remains the same and motionless." Newton contrasted absolute space and time with sensually observable and fixed relative types of space and time.

Of course, space and time as universal forms of the existence of matter cannot be reduced to one or another specific objects and their states. But it is also impossible to separate space and time from material objects, as Newton did. A pure receptacle of all things, existing on its own, a kind of box in which you can put the earth, planets, stars - that's what Newton's absolute space is. Since it is motionless, then any of its fixed points can become a reference point for determining absolute movement, you just need to check your clock with absolute duration, which again exists independently of space and any things in it. Things, material objects, studied by mechanics, turned out to be side by side with space and time. All of them in this system act as independent, in no way affecting each other, constituent elements. Cartesian physics, which identified matter and space, did not recognize emptiness and atoms as forms of the existence of things, was completely discarded. Advances in the explanation of nature and the mathematical apparatus of new mechanics provided Newton's ideas with a long dominance that lasted until the beginning of the 20th century.

In the 19th century began the rapid development of other natural sciences. In physics, great success was achieved in the field of thermodynamics, the theory of the electromagnetic field was developed; the law of conservation and transformation of energy was formulated in a general form. Chemistry progressed rapidly, a table of chemical elements was created based on the periodic law. The biological sciences were further developed, and Darwin's evolutionary theory was created. All this created the basis for overcoming the previous, mechanistic ideas about movement, space and time. A number of fundamental fundamental provisions about the motion of matter, space and time were formulated in the philosophy of dialectical materialism.

In a polemic with Dühring, F. Engels defended the dialectical-materialist concept of nature. “The basic forms of being,” wrote Engels, “are space and time; being outside of time is just as great nonsense as being outside of space.

In his work Dialectics of Nature, Engels considered the problem of motion in detail and developed a doctrine of the forms of motion, which corresponded to the level of development of science at that time. “Movement,” wrote Engels, “considered in general sense words, i.e., understood as a way of existence of matter, as an attribute inherent in matter, embraces all the changes and processes occurring in the universe, starting from simple movement and ending with thinking.

Simple movement in space was considered by Engels to be the most general form of the motion of matter, over which, as in a pyramid, other forms are built. These are the physical and chemical forms of the motion of matter. The carrier of the physical form, according to Engels, are molecules, and the chemical - atoms. Mechanical, physical and chemical forms of movement form the foundation of a higher form of matter movement - biological, the carrier of which is a living protein. And, finally, the highest form of motion of matter is the social form. Its bearer is human society.

"Dialectics of Nature" saw the light of day only in the late 1920s and early 1930s. of our century and therefore could not influence science at the time when it was created. But the methodological principles that were used by Engels in developing the classification of the forms of motion of matter retain their significance up to the present day. First, Engels brings the forms of motion into conformity with the forms or types of the structural organization of matter. With the advent of a new type of structural organization of matter, there also appears the new kind movement. Secondly, the dialectically understood principle of development is embedded in the classification of the forms of movement. Different forms of movement are genetically linked, they not only coexist, but also arise from each other. At the same time, the higher forms of motion include the lower ones as components and conditions necessary for the emergence of a new, higher form of motion of matter. And finally, thirdly, Engels strongly objected to attempts to reduce completely qualitatively unique higher forms of movement to lower forms.

In the 17th and 18th centuries there was a strong tendency to reduce all the laws of nature to the laws of mechanics. This trend is called "mechanism". But later, the same word began to denote attempts to reduce biological and social processes, for example, to the laws of thermodynamics. With the advent of Darwinism, sociologists appeared who were inclined to explain the phenomena of social life by one-sidedly interpreted biological laws. All these are manifestations of mechanism.

Here we encounter contradictions inherent in the process of the development of knowledge, when the features inherent in one type of structural organization of matter are transferred to other types. However, it should be borne in mind that during the study different types organization of matter and different forms of motion, some common, previously unknown circumstances and patterns are revealed that are characteristic of the interaction of different levels of organization of matter. As a result, theories arise that cover a wide range of objects belonging to different levels of matter organization.

Late 19th – early 20th century became a time of a sharp break in ideas about the world - a time when the mechanistic picture of the world, which had dominated natural science for two centuries, was overcome.

One of the most important events in science was the discovery by the English physicist J. Thomson (1856-1940) of the electron, the first intra-atomic particle. Thomson investigated cathode rays and found that they are composed of particles with an electric charge (negative) and a very small mass. The mass of an electron, according to calculations, turned out to be more than 1800 times less than the mass of the lightest atom, the hydrogen atom. The discovery of such a small particle meant that the "indivisible" atom could not be considered as the last "brick of the universe." The studies of physicists, on the one hand, confirmed the reality of atoms, but on the other hand, they showed that a real atom is not at all the atom that was previously considered an indivisible chemical element, of which all the things known to man of that time and the bodies of nature consist.

In fact, atoms are not simple and indivisible, but consist of some particles. The first of these was the discovery of the electron. Thomson's first model of the atom was jokingly called "raisin pudding." Pudding corresponded to a large, massive, positively charged part of the atom, while raisins - small, negatively charged particles - electrons, which, according to Coulomb's law, were held on the surface of the "pudding" by electrical forces. And although this model fully corresponded to the ideas of physicists that existed at that time, it did not become a long-liver.

It was soon superseded by a model that, although contradicting the usual ideas of physicists, nevertheless corresponded to new experimental data. This is the planetary model of E. Rutherford (1871-1937). The experiments about which in question, were put in connection with another fundamentally important discovery - the discovery in late XIX v. phenomena of radioactivity. This phenomenon itself also testified to the complex internal structure of the atoms of chemical elements. Rutherford used the bombardment of targets made of various metal foils with a stream of ionized helium atoms. As a result, it turned out that the atom has a size of 10 to the -8 cm power, and a heavy mass that carries a positive charge is only 10 to the power of 12 cm.

So, in 1911, Rutherford discovered the atomic nucleus. In 1919, he bombarded nitrogen with alpha particles and discovered a new subatomic particle, the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, which he called the "proton." Physics has entered a new world - the world of atomic particles, processes, relationships. And it was immediately discovered that the laws of this world are significantly different from the laws of the macrocosm familiar to us. In order to build a model of the hydrogen atom, it was necessary to create a new physical theory - quantum mechanics. Note that in a short historical period, physicists have discovered a large number of microparticles. By 1974, there were almost twice as many of them as chemical elements in Mendeleev's periodic system.

In search of the basis for the classification of such a large number microparticle physicists turned to the hypothesis that the diversity of microparticles can be explained by assuming the existence of new, subnuclear particles, various combinations of which act as known microparticles. It was a hypothesis about the existence of quarks. It was expressed almost simultaneously and independently of each other in 1963 by the theoretical physicists M. Gell-Man and G. Zweig.

One of the unusual features of quarks should be that they will have a fractional (when compared to the electron and proton) electric charge: either -1/3 or +2/3. The positive charge of the proton and the zero charge of the neutron are easily explained by the quark composition of these particles. True, it should be noted that physicists failed to detect individual quarks either in experiment or in observations (in particular, in astronomical ones). I had to develop a theory explaining why the existence of quarks outside of hadrons is now impossible.

Another fundamental discovery of the 20th century, which had a huge impact on the whole picture of the world, was the creation of the theory of relativity. In 1905, the young and unknown theoretical physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published an article in a special physical journal under the discreet title "On the electrodynamics of moving bodies." In this article, the so-called partial theory of relativity was presented. In essence, this was a new concept of space and time, and new mechanics were developed accordingly. The old, classical physics was quite consistent with the practice that dealt with macrobodies moving at not very high speeds. And only studies of electromagnetic waves, fields and other types of matter related to them forced us to take a fresh look at the laws of classical mechanics.

Michelson's experiments and Lorenz's theoretical work served as the basis for a new vision of the world of physical phenomena. This applies primarily to space and time, the fundamental concepts that determine the construction of the entire picture of the world. Einstein showed that the abstractions of absolute space and absolute time introduced by Newton should be abandoned and replaced by others. First of all, we note that the characteristics of space and time will act differently in systems that are stationary and moving relative to each other.

So, if you measure a rocket on Earth and establish that its length is, for example, 40 meters, and then from the Earth determine the size of the same rocket, but moving at a high speed relative to the Earth, then it turns out that the result will be less than 40 meters. And if you measure the time flowing on Earth and on a rocket, it turns out that the clock readings will be different. On a rocket moving at high speed, time will flow more slowly in relation to the earth's, and the slower the faster the rocket speed, the more it will approach the speed of light. From this follow certain relations which, from our usual practical point of view, are paradoxical.

This is the so-called twin paradox. Imagine twin brothers, one of whom becomes an astronaut and goes on a long space journey, the other remains on Earth. Time passes. The spaceship is back. And between the brothers there is something like this conversation: "Hello," says the one who remained on Earth, "I'm glad to see you, but why haven't you changed at all, why are you so young, because thirty years have passed since the moment you left." “Hello,” the cosmonaut replies, “and I’m glad to see you, but why are you so old, because I flew for only five years.” So, according to the earthly clock, thirty years have passed, and according to the clock of the astronauts, only five. This means that time does not flow in the same way throughout the Universe, its changes depend on the interaction of moving systems. This is one of the main conclusions of the theory of relativity.

The German mathematician G. Minkowski, analyzing the theory of relativity, came to the conclusion that one should generally abandon the idea of ​​space and time as existing characteristics of the world separately from each other. In fact, Minkowski argued, there is a single form of existence of material objects, within which space and time cannot be singled out, isolated. Therefore, we need a concept that expresses this unity. But when it came to designating this concept with a word, no new word was found, and then a new one was formed from the old words: “space-time”.

So, we must get used to the fact that real physical processes occur in a single space-time. And it itself, this space-time, acts as a single four-dimensional manifold; three coordinates characterizing space and one coordinate characterizing time cannot be separated from each other. But in general, the properties of space and time are determined by the cumulative effects of some events on others. Analysis of the theory of relativity required clarification of one of the most important philosophical and physical principles - the principle of causality.

In addition, the theory of relativity encountered significant difficulties in considering the phenomenon of gravitation. This phenomenon could not be explained. It took a lot of work to overcome the theoretical difficulties. By 1916, A. Einstein developed the “General Theory of Relativity!”. This theory provides for a more complex structure of space-time, which turns out to be dependent on the distribution and movement of material masses. The general theory of relativity became the basis on which, in the future, they began to build models of our Universe. But more on that later.

Astronomy has traditionally played an important role in shaping the general view of the world. The changes that took place in astronomy in the 20th century were truly revolutionary. Let's take a look at some of these circumstances. First of all, thanks to the development of atomic physics, astronomers have learned why stars shine. The discovery and study of the world of elementary particles allowed astronomers to build theories that reveal the process of evolution of stars, galaxies and the entire Universe. For thousands of years, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bunchanging stars has forever gone down in history. The developing Universe is the world of modern astronomy. The point here is not only in the general philosophical principles of development, but also in the fundamental facts that were revealed to mankind in the 20th century, in the creation of new general physical theories, primarily the general theory of relativity, in new instruments and new possibilities for observations (radio astronomy, extraterrestrial astronomy) and, finally, , in the fact that humanity has taken the first steps into outer space.

Based on the general theory of relativity, models of our Universe began to be developed. The first such model was created in 1917 by Einstein himself. However, later it was shown that this model has disadvantages and was abandoned. Soon the Russian scientist A. A. Fridman (1888-1925) proposed a model of the expanding universe. Einstein initially rejected this model, as he considered that it contained erroneous calculations. But later he admitted that the Friedman model as a whole is quite well substantiated.

In 1929, the American astronomer E. Hubble (1889-1953) discovered the presence of the so-called redshift in the spectra of galaxies and formulated a law that allows one to establish the speed of movement of galaxies relative to the Earth and the distance to these galaxies. So, it turned out that the spiral nebula in the constellation Andromeda is a galaxy, in terms of its characteristics close to the one in which our solar system is located, and the distance to it is relatively small, only 2 million light years.

In 1960, the spectrum of a radio galaxy was obtained and analyzed, which, as it turned out, is moving away from us at a speed of 138 thousand kilometers per second and is located at a distance of 5 billion light years. The study of galaxies led to the conclusion that we live in a world of receding galaxies, and some joker, apparently remembering Thomson's model, suggested an analogy with a raisin pie that is in the oven and slowly expands, so that each raisin the galaxy is moving away from all others. However, today such an analogy can no longer be accepted, since computer analysis of the results of observations of galaxies leads to the conclusion that in the part of the Universe known to us, galaxies form a certain network or cellular structure. Moreover, the distribution and density of galaxies in space differ significantly from the distributions and densities of stars inside galaxies. So, apparently, both galaxies and their systems should be considered different levels of the structural organization of matter.

An analysis of the internal interconnection between the world of “elementary” particles and the structure of the Universe directed the thought of researchers along this path: “What would happen if certain properties of elementary particles differed from those observed?” Many models of Universes have appeared, but it seems that they all turned out to be the same in one thing - in such Universes there are no conditions for life, similar to the world of living, biological beings that we observe on Earth and to which we ourselves belong.

The hypothesis of an "anthropic" Universe arose. This is our Universe, the successive stages of development of which turned out to be such that the prerequisites for the emergence of living things were created. Thus, astronomy in the second half of the XX century. urges us to look at ourselves as the product of many billions of years of development of our Universe. Our world is the best of all worlds, but not because, according to the Bible. God created it this way and saw for himself that it was good, but because such relations were formed in it within the systems of material bodies, such laws of their interaction and development, that in separate parts of this world conditions could form for the emergence of life, man and mind. At the same time, a number of events in the history of the Earth and the solar system can be assessed as “happy accidents”.

The American astronomer Carl Sagan proposed a human-oriented illustrative model of the development of the Universe in time. He proposed to consider the entire time of the existence of the Universe as one ordinary Earth year. Then 1 second of the cosmic year will be equal to 500 years, and the whole year - 15 billion earth years. It all starts with the Big Bang, as astronomers call the moment when the history of our universe began.

So, according to Sagan's model, out of a whole year of the development of the Universe, our human history accounts for only about an hour and a half. Of course, the question immediately arises about other "lives", about other places in the Universe where there could be life, this special form of organization of matter.

The problem of life in the Universe is most fully posed and discussed in the book of the Russian scientist I. S. Shklovsky (1916-1985) “The Universe. A life. Mind”, the sixth edition of which was in 1987. Most researchers, both naturalists and philosophers, believe that in our Galaxy and in other galaxies there are many oases of life, that there are numerous extraterrestrial civilizations. And, of course, before new era in astronomy, before the beginning of the space age on Earth, many considered the nearest planets of the solar system to be habitable. Mars and Venus. However, neither the vehicles sent to these planets, nor the American astronauts who landed on the Moon, found any signs of life on these celestial bodies.

So the planet should be considered the only inhabited planet in the solar system. Considering the nearest stars within a radius of about 16 light years, which may have planetary systems that meet some general criteria for the possibility of life on them, astronomers have identified only three stars near which such planetary systems can be. In 1976, I. S. Shklovsky published an article that was clearly sensational in its focus: “On the possible uniqueness of intelligent life in the Universe.” Most astronomers, physicists and philosophers do not agree with this hypothesis. But for last years no facts appeared to refute it, and at the same time it was not possible to detect any traces of extraterrestrial civilizations. Is that in the newspapers sometimes there are "eyewitness accounts" who have established direct contact with aliens from outer space. But these "evidence" cannot be taken seriously.

The philosophical principle of the material unity of the world underlies the ideas about the unity of the physical laws that operate in our Universe. This prompts the search for such fundamental connections, through which it would be possible to derive the variety of physical phenomena and processes observed in experience. Soon after the creation of the general theory of relativity, Einstein set himself the task of unifying electromagnetic phenomena and gravity on some unified basis. The task turned out to be so difficult that Einstein did not have enough to solve it for the rest of his life. The problem was further complicated by the fact that in the course of the study of the microcosm, new, previously unknown interconnections and interactions were revealed.

So a modern physicist has to solve the problem of combining four types of interactions: strong, due to which nucleons are pulled together into an atomic nucleus; electromagnetic, repelling like charges (or attracting opposite charges); weak, registered in the processes of radioactivity, and, finally, gravitational, which determines the interaction of gravitating masses. The strengths of these interactions are essentially different. If we take strong as a unit, then electromagnetic will be 10 to the power of -2, weak - 10 to the power of -5. and gravity is 10 to the power of -39.

Back in 1919, a German physicist suggested to Einstein that a fifth dimension be introduced to unify gravity and electromagnetism. In this case, it turned out that the equations that described the five-dimensional space coincide with Maxwell's equations that describe the electromagnetic field. But Einstein did not accept this idea, believing that the real physical world is four-dimensional.

However, the difficulties that physicists face in solving the problem of unifying the four types of interaction force them to return to the idea of ​​space-time for more high dimensions. Both in the 70s and 80s. theoretical physicists have turned to calculating such a space-time. It was shown that at the initial moment of time (determined by an unimaginably small value - 10 to the power of -43 s from the beginning of the Big Bang), the fifth dimension was localized in a region of space that cannot be visualized, since the radius of this region is defined as 10 to the power of -33 cm.

Currently, at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton (USA), where Einstein lived in the last years of his life, a young professor, Edward Witten, is working, who created a theory that overcomes serious theoretical difficulties that quantum theory and general relativity have hitherto encountered. He managed to do this by adding to the known and observed four-dimensional space-time another ... six dimensions.

Thus, something similar to an ordinary, but only completely unusual, ten-dimensional world has turned out, the properties of which determine the entire world of elementary particles and gravity known to us, and, consequently, the macrocosm of ordinary things for us, and the mega-world of stars and galaxies. It's up to the "small": you need to find a way to express the transition from the 10-dimensional to the 4-dimensional world. And since this problem has not yet been solved, many physicists view Witten's theory as a figment of the imagination, mathematically flawless, but not corresponding to the real world. Well aware of the complexity and unusualness of the theory that has come to be called string theory, Whitten says that string theory is a piece of 21st-century physics that accidentally ended up in the 20th. Apparently, it is the physics of the XXI century. will pass judgment on string theory, just as physics of the 20th passed its verdict on relativity and quantum theory.

Science in the 20th century advanced so far that many theories of modern scientists, confirmed by practice, would have seemed just fantasies to scientists of the 19th century. and seem fantastic to most people who are not connected with science. This also applies to general physical theories describing space, time, causality in different areas material world, at different stages of the structural organization of matter and at different stages of the evolution of the Universe.

So, we see that in the process of development of scientific knowledge, ideas about matter and its attributes, such as space, time and motion, change significantly, expand and become more complicated. Each level of the structural organization of matter reveals its own characteristics in the movement and interaction of objects, its own specific forms of spatial organization and the course of temporal processes. Therefore, in recent years, more and more often they began to pay attention to these features and talk about different "times" and different "spaces": space-time in physical processes, space and time in biological processes, space and time in social processes. But it is necessary to accept the concepts of "biological time", "social time" with reservations. After all, time is a form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of existence and the sequence of changing states in any material systems, and space is a form of existence of matter, characterizing the extent, structure, topology of any material systems. And in this sense, space, time and motion are just as general and abstract concepts as matter, which, of course, does not exclude the specific conditions of relationships in material systems of various types. Just as higher forms of organization are built up in the process of development over simpler ones, not excluding these latter, but including them in themselves, so the forms of movement corresponding to them, becoming more complex, give rise to new types of relationships in these more complex material systems. Building a hierarchy of systems, we distinguish, first of all, the microcosm, the macrocosm and the megaworld.

And on our Earth, in addition, there is the world of living beings, which are the bearer of a new, biological form of the movement of matter, and the world of man - society, with its features and its own specific laws.

The concretization of the concept of being is closely connected with the concept of substance, with the concept of matter. The concept of substance(something underlying) - what underlies being, i.e. substance is something that underlies all changes in being. As you know, in ancient philosophy, various substances were singled out, which were interpreted as the fundamental principle of all things (for example, water by Thales, an atom by Democritus, the world of ideas by Plato).

In the philosophy of modern times, two lines of analysis of substance were distinguished: first line - ontological - associated with the understanding of substance as the ultimate foundation of being and was reduced to a description of the forms of specific things (for example, Bacon - being is a thing). Leibniz isolated many simple and indivisible substances - monads; Descartes identifies two substances - material, which is characterized by extension and spiritual, which is characterized by the ability for mental activity, activity and variability. Second line analysis of substance - epistemological. This is a cognitive understanding of the concept of substance, its necessity for scientific knowledge (Lockom, Berkeley, Hegel).

The concept of substance is considered in philosophy from the point of view of its internal unity, regardless of all those infinitely diverse changes in which and through which it actually exists. For modern science, substance is only a formal concept that makes sense: the carrier of a phenomenon. Substratum is the carrier of substance. There are three points of view on the problem of substance:

1. monistic, where the whole world, the whole variety of sensually perceived phenomena is reduced to one beginning (ie, as the unity of diversity).

2. dualistic - it asserts the existence in the world of two initial principles - material and ideal.

3. pluralistic - pluralism - a philosophical point of view, according to which reality consists of many independent entities that do not form an absolute unity. For example, K. Popper's "theory of three worlds", who believes that there are three kinds of being: the world of knowledge that exists independently of the knowing subject; the world of mental states and the world of physical states.

Ever since philosophers began to realize that nature exists independently of man, they have been trying to find something in common that is inherent in all things, events, processes. As you know, in ancient philosophy, the search for this beginning led to the concept of matter (lat. - substance). Subsequently, the concept of matter was identified with the atom, then with the body (weight, rest mass, impenetrability, etc.). A similar approach was in the minds of philosophers and prominent natural scientists until the end of the 19th century. Materialistic philosophy, the concept of matter acts as the most general, fundamental concept, which fixes the material unity of the world, various forms of being. F. Engels well explained how this concept was formed in the book "Dialectics of Nature" (1894). He wrote: “Matter is nothing but a collection of substances from which this concept is abstracted... Words such as matter are nothing more than an abbreviation in which we embrace, according to their common properties, many different sensually perceived things. Therefore, matter.. ... can be known only through the study of individual substances and individual forms of motion. " Thus, one who recognizes objective being must develop a philosophical concept to designate this objective reality. This concept is called matter. The modern definition of matter was given by V.I. Lenin in his work "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism" (1909): " Matter there is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of us. "The concept of matter is a scientific abstraction that reflects the universal property of all phenomena - the property to be an objective reality, to exist outside our consciousness. It emphasizes that matter is primary in relation to consciousness, that it exists outside and independently of consciousness, it is knowable. Therefore, matter can be known only by studying individual objects and objects. This is an infinite variety of objects and systems that have its structure, system of organization, variety of properties.Therefore, any scientific theory world will inevitably be open to further study.

Modern materialism emphasizes that the philosophical concept of matter cannot be associated with matter. So, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, the discoveries of the electron (A. Thompson - 1896), X-rays (N. Roentgen - 1895), radioactivity (Becquerel - 1897) took place in physics. New discoveries revealed the limitations of the mechanistic view of the world, which later made it possible to conclude: natural science will discover other types of matter, deepen our knowledge of the structure of the world, but will not change the philosophical definition of matter as an objective reality.

The concept of matter is closely connected with the concept of nature. nature in broad sense words are matter, i.e. everything that exists, the whole world in the variety of its forms, existing independently of man, develops according to its own laws. The study of nature shapes scientific picture the world as a whole. The scientific picture of the world includes the idea of ​​the structural, systemic organization of nature, various forms of the movement of matter, space, time, reflection, development.

In an effort to comprehend the nature of objective reality, being, which in philosophy is usually denoted using the category "matter", already in ancient times, people began to think about what the world around is made of, whether there are any “fundamentals”, “first bricks” in the structure of the material world. The search for the basis of objective reality in philosophy is called the problem of substance. In ancient times, there were different hypotheses:

Water is the basis of all things (Thales);

Fire is the basis of all things (Heraclitus);

The basis of the world is not some specific substance, but an infinite indefinite substance - "apeiron" (Anaximander);

At the heart of the world is an indivisible substance - atoms (Democritus, Epicurus);

The fundamental principle of the world is God, Divine thought, Word, Logos (Plato, religious philosophers).

If in the 17th century matter was understood as substance, then already in the 19th century. science has shown that in the world there are such material objects that are not matter, for example, electromagnetic fields, that mutual transition between matter and energy, light is possible.

The most complete development of this category is given in the works of contemporary materialists. In materialistic philosophy, "matter" appears as the most general, fundamental category. It fixes the material unity of the world. The definition of the concept of "matter" was given by V.I. Lenin in his work "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism" (1909). “Matter,” Lenin wrote, “is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them.” The meaning of this definition boils down to the fact that matter is an objective reality given to us in sensations. The understanding of matter in this case is not tied to any specific form or state of matter (substance, field, plasma, vacuum). In other words, 1) matter- substance "common in things." The level of generalization in Lenin's definition of matter is the limit. But the general in nature exists through specific things and phenomena. 2) Therefore, matter is also understood as a single thing that affects the senses, causing sensations. Matter as an objective reality capable of influencing our sensations, which creates the basis for our consciousness could perceive the world around us, that is, to know this objective reality. Matter is something that is in its qualities the opposite of what is usually called "consciousness", or subjective reality. 3) The unity of the general and the individual in each specific object implies a third meaning of the term "matter", when it is understood the totality of all material formations in nature, existing regardless of their knowledge by man.

In philosophy, there are several approaches to the concept (category) "matter":

- materialistic approach, according to which matter is the basis of being, and all other forms of life - spirit, man, society - are the product of matter; according to the materialists, matter is primary and represents the existence;

- objective-idealistic approach– matter objectively exists as a product (objectification) independently of all existing primary ideal (absolute) spirit;

- subjective-idealistic approach- matter as an independent reality does not exist at all, it is only a product (apparent phenomenon, “hallucination”) of the subjective spirit (existing only in the form of human consciousness);

- positivist- the concept of "matter" is false, since it cannot be proved and fully studied with the help of experimental scientific research.

In modern Russian philosophy, a materialistic approach to the problem of being and matter has been established, according to which matter is an objective reality and the basis of being, the root cause, and all other forms of being - spirit, man, society - are manifestations of matter and are derivatives of it.

All material objects are characterized by some common attributive properties. (The word "attribute" in philosophy denotes such a property, without which a material object cannot exist.) Such attributive properties of matter usually include: - systemicity (orderliness, structural certainty); - activity (movement, change, development); - self-organization; - spatio-temporal form of being; - reflection; - informative.

Structural elements of matter (the material world) are: not nature, wildlife, society (society).

3.Attributive properties of matter: movement, space, time.

Motion ( D.) in philosophy is considered as the most important property of matter. D. does not exist without matter, and matter does not exist without motion. In a broad sense, it is understood as any change in general, starting with a simple spatial movement of an object and ending with human thinking; those. D. is not the same type and is not a homogeneous process. There are the following types D., characterizing the direction of change: 1) D. in an ascending line (from simple to complex); 2 ) D. downstream (for example, the aging process); 3) neither ascending nor descending (for example, D. pendulum). Such D. possible in relatively short periods of time.

D. has the following properties: objectivity, universality, indestructibility, absoluteness.

Objectivity is that D. is an immanent property of material systems, it exists independently of consciousness.

Universality - any object implements its stability through certain processes and changes. There are no material objects in the world that would be deprived of D.

Increability and indestructibility D. is proved by the fact that if we recognize the finiteness D., then we will have to admit the existence of matter without D.(which is impossible). The most important argument is the law of conservation of energy: energy does not disappear without a trace, but is transformed from one form into another, but quantitatively conserved. The qualitative indestructibility of Energy lies in the fact that none of its forms disappear without a trace. Movement and Energy are connected by the fact that Energy is the ability to do work and, accordingly, it is a characteristic D.

Absoluteness D. raises the question of the existence of rest. D. and peace are opposites that presuppose and do not exclude each other, therefore it is a unity of opposites. Peace, i.e. lack of movement is a likely side of this unity. D. absolute, but peace is relative. Peace is manifested in balance, in temporal stability and stability of phenomena. The presence of rest is a necessary condition for the existence of qualitatively certain things. Peace is relative to some material objects, but not to matter in general. It is relative to individual species. D., but not to D. generally. So that, D. and peace are two sides of the same coin, dialectically contradictory properties of any material object. They are interdependent: the preservation of the structure of an object is the result of the ongoing interaction of its parts.

F. Engels singled out the following forms of matter motion: - mechanical form (mainly in space); - physical (heat, change in aggregate states of matter); - chemical (transformation of substances); biological (metabolism); social (changes in society). Each of them is associated with a specific material carrier.

Space and time (P. and V.) there are attributes of matter, continuously connected with motion, without which it does not exist. P. expresses the extent and structure of any objects, the order of their coexistence and location. Time expresses the duration of the existence of objects, the sequence of cause-and-effect relationships and the change in the states of matter. P. and V. do not exist separately from moving matter and from each other.

In the history of philosophy, there are two main approaches to the location of matter in time and space:

1. Substantial;

2. Relational.

Proponents of the first - substantial approach (Democritus, Epicurus) believed P. and V. a separate reality, along with matter an independent substance, and the relationship between matter , P. and V. considered as intersubstantial.

P. was identified with emptiness (place), understood as independent substance, thanks to which all phenomena and processes receive spatial characteristics. This idea played a significant role in the process of formation of classical physics. V. is also regarded as an independent entity, as "duration in general", as a condition for all possible changes. V. has its own "flow", regardless of whether something happens or not.

Supporters of the second - the relational approach (Aristotle, Leibniz, Hegel) - perceived P. and V. as relations formed by the interaction of material objects. The relational concept of war proceeded from the primacy of movement, the change of specific objects, with respect to which, depending on the nature of the changes, temporal relations are formed. V. acts as an expression of orderliness, the sequence of ongoing changes.

At present, the relational theory looks more reliable (based on the achievements of science), according to which:

- V.- the form of existence of matter, which expresses the duration of the existence of material objects and the sequence of changes (change of states) of these objects in the process of their development;

- P.- the form of existence of matter, which characterizes its extent, structure, the interaction of elements within material objects and the interaction of material objects with each other.

P. and V. are closely intertwined. What is happening in P., occurs at the same time V., but what happens in V., is in P. Hegel, connecting P. and V. with movement ( D.), argued that they are only valid if there is D., change something. A D., according to Hegel, is the immediate unity P. and V.

The theory of relativity, discovered in the middle of the 20th century. Albert Einstein: - confirmed the correctness of relational theory - that is, understanding P. and V. as relations within matter; - turned the old views on P. and V. as eternal, unchanging quantities.

With the help of complex physical and mathematical calculations, Einstein proved that if any object moves at a speed exceeding the speed of light, then inside this object P. and V. change - P.(material objects) will decrease, and V. will slow down. In this way, P. and V. are relative, and they are relative depending on the conditions of interaction of material bodies.

Categories P. and V. are universal in nature, as they are applicable for analysis both objectively and subjective reality, that is, they are universal. Universality is due to the unity of being and the absolute nature of the changes taking place in it.

P. and V. also have their own properties. properties P. traditionally called the following : 1. ObjectivityP.(a common property of P. and V.). This property follows from the recognition of the objective reality of moving matter. Objectivity P. and V. not everyone recognizes: some consider these categories to be forms of human contemplation. They are trying to prove this position scientifically: over time, ideas about P. and V. changed repeatedly. But one should take into account the unconditional difference between ideas about P. and V. and about the real P. and V. 2. Length P.- is expressed in the stability of the connection of elements in the system; the magnitude of the extent depends on the internal and external connections of the bodies, the structure of the object. Length is a common feature P. 3. Three-dimensionality P., i.e. Its characteristics are length, width and height. This property is related to some properties of motion ( D.): D. points gives a line (1 dimension), D. lines are a plane (2nd dimension), and D. planes - volume (3rd dimension). In science, they have long been talking about the presence of more than three dimensions, for example, in physics it is traditionally believed that the 4th dimension for P. is V. Three-dimensional P. characterizes the world familiar to man, and if more dimensions are found, some new ideas about this category are possible. (The very provisions on three-dimensionality P. underlie the theorem of linear algebra: the maximum number of linearly independent vectors is three, but this theory has not been proven). 4. The unity of the discontinuous and the continuous. Discontinuity P. is expressed in the discreteness (separation) of material bodies, but matter is not only substance, but also a field that is continuous, respectively, is the unity of the discontinuous and continuous.

properties V. are the following: 1. Objectivity- since matter is objectively moving, and V. attribute of matter, then, accordingly, it is also objective . 2.Duration as a property V. manifests itself in the facts of the occurrence of each subsequent moment after the end of the previous one. No process can happen instantly - it lasts in time; duration is due to the preservation of matter and the successive stay of matter in different qualities.

The existence of psychological P. and V. Their features and characteristics are determined by the psyche of an individual, as well as by the external circumstances of his existence. So, psychological (subjective, perceptual) V. depends on the meaning of human activity, his mood and ability to perceive information. If a person likes the activity and has a normal processing of information, then V. flows quickly and vice versa, and human intelligence depends on the process and speed of assimilation of information.

Consequently, the concept of psychological (perceptual) V. expresses the perception V. a specific person. Mixing subjective and objective V. leads to the conclusion that no V. not at all, and it was precisely this position that Democritus and Aristotle adhered to. The essence of their view was that time there is a kind of fiction, which crumbles upon closer examination: the past no longer exists, the future has not yet arrived, and there is only “now”. The past continues into the present and is defined in connection with the present. The real past is always the past of some present.

V.unidirectional and irreversible, that is, the past gives rise to the present and the future, but it is impossible to return the past; it is inaccessible to influence, as well as the future. These properties determine the asymmetry of cause-and-effect relationships: the action is always directed from cause to effect, but not vice versa. If an effect were to give rise to a cause, then all effects would have to disappear in the causes that gave rise to them. However, in life there are such phenomena that cast doubt on this property. V. So, there is such a thing as a "time loop", i.e. cases of movement in time from the past to the present or from the present to the past - these movements contradict the property of unidirectionality V. However, one way or another, but objectively at the moment V. exists only the present, and the past and the future exist only through the present: the past in the form of cultural heritage, and the future in the form of opportunities. At the same time, unidirectional V. does not mean that D. there is some final goal or state, because time is forever.

Since the second half of the XX century. V. also studied in the framework humanities and art. At the end of the last century, they began to distinguish artistic P. and V. Now some scientists believe that there are several types V.: biological, historical, geological, etc.

Can be distinguished P. and V. social being. The unit of social space can be a village, a polis, a feudal estate, a national state, etc. The feeling of time in different eras is connected with the pace of life, with the use of calendars, clocks, with the saturation of life with events, with the dynamism of social processes in general. social V.- a form of being of society, expressing the duration of historical processes, their changes that arise in the course of people's activities.

Thus the concept P. and V. make sense for objective and subjective reality, since any reality is differentiated, structured, and the world is in a state of motion.

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What is the essence of the philosophical problem of being?

2. What is the difficulty in defining the category of "matter"? How can this definition be formulated?

3. Expand the relationship of space and time with each other and with the movement of matter.

4. Explain the essence of the substantial and relational approaches regarding the location of matter in time and space.