Lorenzo Valla's treatise on pleasure. Biography

A native of Rome, Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) already in his youth became known as one of the talented humanist philosophers. At the age of 23, he was already a teacher at the university in Pavia, and in 1431 he published his famous essay “On Pleasure” (in 1433 this work was republished in an expanded edition under the title “On the True and False Good”).

He didn't leave his literary activity and later, when he was at the court of the Sicilian king Alfonso of Aragon. At the same time, many of Lorenzo Valla’s works were directed against the Roman Catholic Church, for he constantly opposed the secular power of the popes and proved the meaninglessness of asceticism and monasticism. In one of his works he said: “I dare to speak out against the supreme high priest.”

Perhaps Lorenzo Valla showed the greatest “audacity” in his essay “Discourse on the Forgery of the So-called Deed of Gift of Constantine,” written in 1440. The fact is that Roman Catholic Church considered herself the heir to the secular power of the Roman emperors. This opinion was based on the “Deed of Gift”, which was allegedly granted in the 4th century. Emperor Constantine to Pope Sylvester I. The “Donation of Constantine” for many centuries was considered a legal justification for the claims of the popes to have temporal power not only in the papal region in Italy, but in all European countries where Catholicism was practiced.

Lorenzo Valla was the first to conduct a historical and philological analysis of the “Deed of Gift” and proved the falsity of this document and its much later origin. Therefore, he called the letter itself a “shameless fable.” It is quite understandable that the work of Lorenzo Valla caused enormous anger in Rome, and the thinker even had to deal with the Inquisition.

However, new humanistic sentiments gained influence in the Roman Curia. With the coming to power of Pope Nicholas V, who sympathized with the humanists, the attitude towards Lorenzo Valla also changed. He was invited to the post of apostolic secretary and professor at the University of Rome. However, he did not give up his beliefs.

In the spirit of universal passion ancient philosophy, Lorenzo Valla was one of the first humanists to draw attention to creative heritage Epicurus. In 1417, the poem “On the Nature of Things” by the Roman poet and thinker Titus Lucretius Cara, which set out Epicurean views, was found and later published. In a fairly short time, the poem by Lucretius Cara became very popular. The thinkers of the Renaissance were attracted to the philosophy of Epicurus primarily by the doctrine of pleasure, and a real discussion unfolded between them about the essence of this doctrine.

The treatise “On Pleasure,” written by Lorenzo Valla, became a direct continuation of this discussion. The humanist philosopher called for the most careful reading of the ideas of Epicurus. Indeed, from the official Catholic point of view, the philosophy of Epicurus was condemned as inconsistent with the general Christian worldview, which denied pleasure as the goal of human existence.

Lorezo Valla, on the contrary, saw in the teachings of Epicurus a support for substantiating a new humanistic ethics. From his point of view, a person must follow his nature, which predisposes him to pleasure, and is obliged to take care not only of mental, but also of physical health. And in general, the desire for pleasure, as interpreted by Lorenzo Valla, is the main incentive driving all human actions. Pleasure is the highest good, therefore, in one of the chapters of his book “On Pleasure,” he writes: “It is impossible to live without pleasure, but without virtue it is possible.” And in another place he proclaims: “Long live true and constant pleasures at any age and for any sex!”

And in general, Valla literally glorifies human feelings that give pleasure, expressing in one of his works regret that a person has only five, and not fifty or even five hundred senses!

It is quite natural that such a position led the thinker to perceive the individual as the center of being in general. Ineradicable egoism human nature is justified by the desire for self-preservation. No wonder Valla claims that his personal life, for himself, is the highest good. A person’s own life is more preferable than the lives of other people. And all human thoughts by nature itself are directed towards caring for oneself.

In fact, Lorenzo Valla formulates a real “apology for pleasure,” which becomes one of the most important principles of morality. However, pleasure itself is understood not only as the satisfaction of certain base carnal needs. On the contrary, in full accordance with Epicurus, the idea of pleasure is affirmed as a harmony of spiritual and physical principles, equally inherent in man and therefore obligatory for him.

Moreover, warning people against professing only carnal pleasures, he says: “It should be noted that although I said that pleasure or pleasure is always good, I still strive not for pleasure, but for God. Pleasure is love, and God gives this pleasure." Therefore, Lorenzo Valla calls true pleasure that which the soul experiences in paradise.

Subsequently, the “apology of pleasure” becomes one of the most important topics in all humanistic literature, because through the prism of Epicurean ideas, understood in a new spirit, new humanistic ideas about the essence of the human personality, about the relationship of the individual with God and other people seemed to become clearer.

(Lorenzo Valla), famous Italian humanist, b. in Rome or Piacenza in 1407, died in Rome 1457. V. spent his childhood and early youth at the Curia of Martin V, then was a professor in Pavia, traveled to other cities of Italy, lived in Naples at the court of Alfonso of Arragon, and in 1448 received the place of apostolic secretary under Nicholas V and was made a canon at the Church of St. John in the Lateran and retained both positions until his death.

V. stood at the center of the humanistic movement of his time. His essay “De linguae latinae elegantia” is a clarification exact value Latin words and their correct and elegant use - had great success among his contemporaries and immediate posterity; in addition to the mass of manuscripts, there are more than 30 printed editions of the 15th century alone. Valla then commented on the Latin writers Livy, Sallust, Quintilian; translated Herodotus, Thucydides, as well as part of the Iliad and some of Aesop's fables; wrote philosophical treatises and historical works. Characteristic features of V.'s scientific and literary activity are sharp criticism of church and humanistic authorities and a fierce struggle against asceticism. In addition to “De falso credita et ementita Constantini donatione declamatio”, where the falsity of the “Donation of Constantine” was proven, Valla refuted the church teaching about the origin of apostolic symbol and published a treatise: “De libero arbitrio” against Boethius. He wrote a sharp invective against the medieval jurists: “In Bartoli de insigniis et armis libellum epistola,” and at the same time sharply criticized Cicero, “the god of the humanists,” and placed Quintilian above him; in the treatise “De dialectica” he made amendments to Aristotle; in “Disputatio adversus Livium, duo Tarquinii Lucius ac Aruns, Prisci Tarquinii filii ne an nepotes fuerint” opposed the opinion of Livy. This criticism caused sharp attacks on V. from all sides: he barely escaped from the Inquisition for his opinion on the apostolic symbol and had to conduct a fierce polemic with Poggio, Fazio and other humanists. V. spoke out against asceticism in two treatises: “De volupate bn vero bono,” where he tried to reconcile extreme Epicureanism with Christianity, and “De professione religiosorum,” where he sharply rebelled against the monastic institution.

But V. was not hostile to Christianity and was interested in church and theological issues: he compiled philological amendments to the accepted translation of the New Testament, wrote “Sermo de mysterio Eucharistiae” and a now lost essay on the origin of St. Spirit. V.’s merits in historiography come down mainly to the same criticism, and his “Historiarum Ferdinandi (Father Alfonso) libri III” is of interest more because of the controversy that this book caused “(In Bartholomaeum Facium recriminationum libri IV)”. V.'s works were published (not all of them) back in the 16th century.

Walter

(Walter) - prior of the monastery of St. Victor in Paris, lived in the 12th century. and acted as an ardent opponent of Aristotelian dialectics. In his work “Contra quatuor labyrinthes Galliae” (exists only in a manuscript in Paris), he, as a follower of mystical theology, attacks four representatives of rational scholasticism: Peter Lombard, Abelard, Peter of Pictavian and Gilbert of Porretan.

Undertaken on the basis of traditional historiographical and philological considerations. He was one of the creators of classical “ancient” Latin.

Biography

Lorenzo Valla born in Rome or Piacenza in the city (sometimes reported in the city) in the family of a curial lawyer. He spent his youth at the papal curia Martina V, studied Greek language at Bruni , Aurispas And Rinuccio. With Mr. Valla was professor of rhetoric at the University of Pavia, where he was admitted on the recommendation of a humanist Antonio Beccadelli (Panormites). In the city, after an attempt on his life by envious professors, Valla leaves the University of Pavia and travels to other cities in Italy. Since then he lived in Naples at court Alfonso of Aragon, being his secretary. In Valla received the position of apostolic secretary to the pope Nicholas V and became a canon of the church St. Joanna in the Lateran, retaining both positions until his death on 1 August.

Acts

Valla stood at the center of the humanistic movement of his time. His essay "De linguae latinae elegantia" Considered the first Latin grammar since Antiquity, it is dedicated to clarifying the exact meaning of Latin words and their correct and graceful use. It was a great success among contemporaries and was reprinted more than 30 times in the 15th century after its first publication in the city. Valla also commented and analyzed Latin writers Libya , Salostia, Quintiliana; translated Herodotus, Thucydides, as well as part "Iliad" and some fables Aesop. Posted by philosophical treatise "De voluptate ac vero bono" ("On True and False Good", ), in which he preached extreme hedonism, and also composed historical works.

Characteristic features of scientific and literary activity Walla- polemical and harsh criticism towards Catholic dogmas and humanistic authorities, as well as the ideological struggle against Christian asceticism. In traditional history it is believed that in his work "De falso credita et ementita constantini donatione declamatio", supposedly written in the city, first published in Germany in the city, the falsity of the “Gift of Constantine” was proven.

Against medieval lawyers Valla wrote a harsh invective , and at the same time sharply criticized Cicero and placed Quintilian above him; V "Disputatio adversus Livium, duo Tarquinii Lucius ac Aruns, Prisci Tarquinii filii ne an nepotes fuerint" opposed the opinion Libya. This criticism led to sharp attacks on all sides Vallu: in the city he barely escaped the Holy Inquisition for his opinion on the apostolic symbol and had to conduct a fierce polemic with Poggio , Fazio and other humanists who reproached him for arrogance and arrogance. Valla reproached in response Poggio the fact that he does not speak the classical languages of the ancients and speaks in “kitchen Latin”, like a despicable cook.

Some historians of science attribute Valle formulation of the following five conditions for successful scientific creativity:

communication with educated people
abundance of books
comfortable, pleasant and private place to work
having time not filled with necessary things
release of the soul

In historiography merits Walla boil down mainly to the same criticism, and its "Historiarum Ferdinandi libri III" are of interest due to the controversy that this book caused ( "In Bartholomaeum Facium recriminationum libri IV"). Most essays Walla published in the 16th century or surfaced at a later time.

Reconstruction

Lorenzo Valla became a symbolic figure of the Reformation, many critical anti-church and anti-feudal works of the subsequent centuries of the printing era are attributed to his authority.

One example of this type of substitution is "Refutations of the authenticity of the Gift of Constantine", first published in - 60 years after death Walla. From the point of view modern science stated in the text "proof" are a set of polemical demagoguery, and in their content they rely on traditional, Scaligerian chronological ideas about thousand-year antiquity "Gifts", as well as traditional philological reconstructions "ancient Latin". Therefore, despite numerous statements about the “proof” of forgery "Dara", the text itself attributed Lorenzo Valle, has not been analyzed since its appearance, adding to the dubious foundation of traditional chronology. The Catholic Church finally recognized the fraud "Dara" only in the second half of the 19th century, not so much because of the arguments expressed, but for the sake of a compromise with modern humanities.

From the point of view of NH, the Gift of Constantine is an erroneously dated historical reality of the 15th century, and the text "Rebuttals" is an ideological fake attributed to Valle, How significant personality, retrospectively the religious humanist reformers of the next century.

It is characteristic that the church leader Valla, according to traditional historiography, refuted church teaching about the origin of the apostolic symbol and wrote a treatise "De libero arbitrio" against Boethius, where he criticized the Stoic ideas about the relationship between free human will and divine predestination, accepted by Catholic theology. Against monastic asceticism Valla, allegedly spoke in two treatises: "De voluptate ac vero bono" trying to reconcile extreme hedonism with Epicureanism and Christianity, as well "De professione religiosorum", - where the author sharply opposes the monastic institution of the Catholic Church - this book was found in the 19th century and first published in the city, being unknown before that time.

In progress "Dialecticae disputationes" Valla corrects Aristotle's logic according to his own understanding and criticizes the scholastic philosophy that dominated European science until the time of Galileo. Historians also report that Valla, it turns out, was not hostile to Christianity and was interested in church and theological issues: he compiled philological amendments to the accepted translation of the New Testament, wrote "Sermo de mysterio Eucharistiae" and the now lost essay on the origin Holy Spirit.

It is clear that such opinions about the activities of a church functionary could arise only in the era of the Reformation and Enlightenment, and were consolidated only in modern times, When Catholic Church lost its political, economic and ideological strength.

Proceedings

"De voluptate ac vero bono",
"De vero falsoquie buono",
"In Bartoli de insigniis et armis libellum epistola",

Born in Rome in 1407, Valla did not receive a formal university education, but he was mentored in Latin, Greek and rhetoric by the greatest humanist of the first half of the 15th century. Leonardo Bruni (Leonardo Bruni, 1374–1444) and the famous teacher Giovanni Aurispa (d. 1459). At the age of 24, Valla tried to get a seat in the papal curia, but due to his youth his candidacy was rejected. In 1431 Valla accepted the chair of rhetoric at the University of Pavia, where, in addition to teaching, he began systematic research in the field of philology, rhetoric, and philosophy.

Here he creates a treatise On true and false good (De vero falsoque bono), published under the title On pleasure (De voluptate). In 1433, Valla criticized contemporary jurisprudence, which caused fierce attacks on himself, as a result of which he was forced to leave Pavia.

On foot, trying to find a place in various cities of Italy, Valla moved to Naples in 1435, where he became the secretary of King Alfonso of Aragon. The king's court was famous both for the fact that it was visited by the most famous thinkers of that time, and for the fact that freedom of morals reigned there, reaching the point of licentiousness. Vpo

Consequently, Valla noted that his lifestyle at that time was by no means morally impeccable. Nevertheless, during these years he created most of the polemical works that brought him fame: On free will (De libero arbitrio, 1439), dedicated to criticism of medieval views on free will and the role of the government

ideas; Dialectics (Dialecticae disputationes, 1439), in which scholastic logic and dialectics based on the teachings of Aristotle were criticized and an attempt was made to cleanse Latin from barbarisms; concludes with Elegance (On the beauties Latin language, De elegantia linguae latinae, 1442), h

laid the foundations scientific history Latin language. During these same years, he wrote a sharp anti-clerical essay - On the monastic vow (De professione religiosorum, 1442, published only in 1869), in which he criticized monasticism, and Discussions on the falsity of the so-called Deed of Gift of Co.

Constantine (Declamazioine contro la donazione di Constantino, 1440). A philological analysis of this famous document, which was believed to lie at the basis of the temporal power of the Pope, led Valla to the conclusion that it was a forgery. Valla's critical views led to charges of heresy. Proceedings began in 1444

The procedure for bringing him to trial by the Inquisition, and only the intercession of the Neapolitan king Alfonso of Aragon freed him from responsibility. In his Apology addressed to Pope Eugenio IV (Apologia ad Eugenio IV), written in 1445, Valla develops his views on monasticism and ecclesiastical authority. To this

The final edition of the dialogue On the True and False Good (1447) also dates back to this time, in which, through the polemics of a Stoic, an Epicurean and a Christian, Valla gives his idea of the highest good, which is a synthesis of the prepared teachings of Epicureanism and Christianity. Soon Wallah creates History

King Ferdinand of Aragon (Historiae Ferdinandi regis Aragoniae, 1445–1446).

In 1448, after the election of Pope Nicholas V, an admirer of Renaissance culture and patron of humanists, Valla moved to Rome, where he received the post of first copyist, and soon apostolic secretary. As specified

Iu Papa Valla carries out translations from Greek of a number of classical authors. At the same time, he teaches rhetoric, comments on ancient authors and is working on the essay Critical Textual Commentary on the New Testament (In novum Testamentum ex diversorum in utriusque linguae codicum collatione ad

notations). Valla writes several theological works, creates a private school of rhetoric, and teaches at the University of Rome.

With his critical works, Valla made a significant contribution to the rethinking medieval worldview and the creation of prerequisites for new European knowledge and self-awareness.

In his work, he embodied the ideal of a free thinker, for whom the main authority is his own mind, and the stimulus for creativity is the inquisitiveness of a restless mind. Valla's criticism was an expression of his inner dignity and autonomy of spirit. For this he had to pay a high price. N

and guardians church traditions, nor the figures of the humanistic circle forgave him for his militant intellectual nonconformism. Most likely, Valla was indeed impudent, arrogant, arrogant, and the Italian humanist Bartolomeo Fazio (author of O famous people, mind. 1457) and Poggio Bra

Chciolini (writer and collector of ancient manuscripts, 1380–1459), did not greatly exaggerate when they reproached him for this. However, from the works of Valla himself, especially from the Apology, it clearly follows that it was not his own person, but the truth and only the truth that worried him most of all, and in finding the truth, in

education of youth and enlightenment of those who can be reached, Walla saw his duty and life purpose.

Valla is a true representative of the era of Humanism. Philology turns out to be not just a subject of scientific studies for him, but also a powerful research method. Thanks to

philological analysis, which consisted of a critical semantic reconstruction of the text, he managed to advance in the understanding of classical legal texts, and the understanding of the New Testament, and in the analysis of pressing philosophical, socio-philosophical and logical problems.

Valla's great merit is

I was involved in the rehabilitation of the name and teachings of Epicurus. He was not the first to take a step towards bringing Epicureanism back into the fold philosophical discussions, but his contribution was fundamental. Based on the teachings of Epicurus, Valla formulated the criterion of morality, unambiguously linking it with the good of the individual. Each person follows

public good; The task of the individual is to correctly understand what his true good is. The good of man lies in a life free from suffering and worries, and the source of pleasure is the love of other people. Virtue is a person’s ability to correctly understand his

nd interest and make the proper choice between the greater and the lesser good. And although pleasure lies in love, love relationship in Valla's interpretation they turn into relationships of mutual benefit. Thus, relying on the ideas of Epicurus and criticizing the views of the Stoics and Aristotle, and indirectly Christianity, Valla utve

The most significant humanist philosopher after Petrarch can be called Lorenzo Vallu (1407–1457). His main work is “On Pleasure.” Already from the title it is clear that Valla was a philosopher who revived the Epicurean worldview. The second part of the title of this work is “...or About true and false good.” In addition, he has treatises “On the beauties of the Latin language” (against the contemporary barbaric Latin language), “On free will”, “On the monastic vow”, “Comparison of the New Testament”, as well as the famous work “Discourse on the falsity of the so-called Gift deed of Constantine. According to generally accepted Catholic world I think in the 4th century. Emperor Constantine gave it as a gift to Patriarch Sylvester I in gratitude for his miraculous healing and for the victory in the famous battle, a letter that states the transfer to the pope of all power over the western regions of Europe, primarily over Italy. It was on this document that the popes based the priority of papal power over imperial power. Lorenzo Valla, using philological analysis, proved that this letter could not have been written in the 4th century, but was a much later forgery. Since then, skepticism about the priority of papal power has become more and more strengthened.

Lorenzo Valla was an outstanding linguist, as follows from the title and another work - “On the beauties of the Latin language,” in which he acted as a critic of barbaric Latin. He objects to the terms introduced by the supporters of John Duns Scotus (“whatness”, “beingness”, “thisness”, etc.), and calls for a return to the living Latin language, not to disfigure it with innovations. Valla also concludes that realistic philosophizing also cannot be true, since it cannot correspond to normal human language. All those universals that need to be expressed in words so incomprehensible to the human ear are nothing more than an invention of pseudoscientists.

The philosophy of Lorenzo Valla sees its ideal in the figure of Epicurus, but it revives not his atomism, but his attitude to life, the interpretation of the concept of “pleasure.” Valla understands pleasure differently than the historical Epicurus, who was not an Epicurean in the modern sense of the word. Valla understands Epicureanism precisely as a preference for pleasure over all other human values, and sometimes even regrets that a person has only five senses, and not 50 or 500, in order to receive pleasure in a much larger volume.

In addition to this kind of exaggeration, Valla also gives more serious arguments, proving that feelings, in addition to giving us the ability to experience pleasure, also serve to understand the world. Thanks to feelings, a living being maintains its life, and pleasure is the criterion by which it can avoid danger or strive for what helps it survive. It is no coincidence that food is pleasant and therefore useful for life, but poison is bitter and, like any danger, does not give pleasure. Therefore, Valla makes a fundamental conclusion: it is impossible to live without pleasure (which cannot be said about virtue), therefore pleasure is a true good, a true value, and Catholics (and Christians in general) are disingenuous when they say that pleasure is not a true good. For what does a Christian fear after death? Torment in hell. What does he expect from heaven? Eternal pleasure. Valla believes that his view of pleasure does not contradict Christianity, but is more honest and consistent.

A person exists for pleasure, and Valla calls all statements like “better death for one’s homeland than shame” stupidity, because with the death of a person, his homeland also dies for him. Therefore, it is better to betray your homeland (or anyone), but stay alive. Virtue can only be understood as utility for a person, and the criterion of utility for Valla is pleasure or non-pleasure.