The ancient Greek temple of the goddess Athena is a monument of ancient architecture. What you need to know about Athens' greatest temple, the Parthenon? Conditions for visiting the Parthenon

When we think about the great civilizations in human history, it is impossible not to think of the ancient Greeks. Many centuries ago, Western culture was born on their land, from law and politics to athletics and architecture. Remnants of the former glory of one of the most advanced civilizations in the world still excite the imagination, and it is unlikely that there will be such an iconic architectural monument that will be more reminiscent of Ancient Greece than the Parthenon.

As one of the most famous landmarks in the world, the Parthenon attracts millions of tourists every year who seek to see its majestic form with their own eyes. Naturally, with such a long history of existence, there will always be interesting facts, which would be nice to know about to modern man to have an idea of ​​this iconic architectural structure.

A little history: Situated on the Acropolis in Athens, the Parthenon was built during the greatest period of the Greek Empire. Its construction began back in 447 BC, in 9 years the main work was completed, but it took another 6 years to decorate it with decorative elements. Despite the fact that the construction method cannot be called innovative, nevertheless, the proportions of the Parthenon have been studied for centuries and have become the canon of classical architecture.

1. The temple was built in honor of the Greek goddess Athena

The Parthenon was built in honor of the goddess Pallas Athena, who was considered not only the patroness of Athens, but also of crafts, art, knowledge and science. She was also revered as the goddess of wisdom, victorious war, and defender of justice and law. Taking into account all the virtues of their patroness, the Greeks built the majestic Parthenon on the site of the old temple of the goddess as a sign of gratitude for their victory over the Persian invaders.

2. Origin of the name Parthenon

The name Parthenon comes from the Greek word παρθενών, which translates as “apartments for unmarried women.” The word is believed to refer specifically to one room in the Parthenon, although historians still debate which room it was. At the moment, there are different theories, it is quite possible that the name of the temple refers to the maidens (parthenoi), who participated in sacrifices to the goddess Athena, it was this action that guaranteed the safety of the city.

3. The Parthenon is located on a sacred site

The history of the Acropolis goes back much further than the Parthenon itself. In fact, the temple is located on the site of a much older temple dedicated to Athena, which is now called the Prethephenon or Old Parthenon. This old temple was destroyed during the Persian War in 480 BC, and it was destroyed during the construction stage, so even the ancient Greeks could not see the shrine in its finished form. Only 30 years later, after a devastating war, the Greeks decided to revive this place again and still build a majestic structure, the ruins of which we can see even after more than one millennium.

4. The Parthenon is one of the best examples of Greek architecture

The Parthenon became one of the iconic examples of architecture of the ancient Greeks, who created it in the form of a peripterus - a temple surrounded by columns in the Doric order. The structure of the building measures 30.9 by 69.5 meters and consists of two internal chambers (cells). A 12-meter statue of the goddess Athena was installed in the eastern cella. In the western chamber the main treasury of the Union of Greek city-states (Delian League) was located; only priests could be in it, who were responsible for the safety of the treasury.

Considering that the Parthenon was built in the best traditions of the architectural canons of the Doric order, which means that its columns have carved shafts and simple capitals. The impressive pediments that crowned each corner of the building were decorated with sculptures, and a continuous frieze ran around each inner chamber and column spandrels.

5. The Parthenon did not serve as a temple

Although we are accustomed to talking about the Parthenon as a temple - and it looks like a religious building, in ancient times the main cult image of Pallas Athena was located in another area of ​​the Acropolis. While inside the Parthenon there was a majestic statue of Athena, which was created by the famous sculptor Phidias, but it was not associated with any specific cult and therefore was not worshiped.

6. Statue of Athena in the Parthenon

Despite the fact that the Parthenon was not a cult temple, it was created so that it could accommodate the 12-meter statue of Athena Parthenos, which was created by Phidias. The legendary sculptor and architect depicted Athena as the goddess of war. The head of the patroness was decorated with a golden helmet, right hand she holds a statue of the winged Nike, and with her left hand she leans on a shield. The frame of the statue, made of wood, is lavishly decorated with ivory and gold. Unfortunately, Phidias’s creation has been lost, but in Nashville (USA) you can see a full-scale copy of Athena Paladas in a modern interpretation.

7. During Ancient Greece, the Parthenon was bright and colorful

There is an opinion that the architectural structures of antiquity had the natural color of untouched stone or marble, but this is a misconception. The Parthenon – like most of it greek architecture and even the sculptures were originally painted. While historians debate how much of the structure was covered in color, archaeologists using ultraviolet light discovered pigments that had simply faded away over time and lost their color completely. Research has shown that all the sculptures and carved elements on the pediments, frieze and roof were painted in ultra blue, red and gold tones.

8. Transformation of an ancient temple into a Christian church

The Parthenon served as a treasury depository and was the temple of the goddess Athena for a thousand years. But when Athens lost its former power and glory, turning into a dilapidated provincial city of the Roman Empire, which could not protect its shrine from the greed of the emperor, who seized all the treasures and took them to Constantinople.

After all these sad events, around the 5th century AD, Patriarch Paul III of Constantinople ordered it to be rebuilt into the Church of St. Sophia. For almost 1 thousand years it served as a place of worship for Christians, until the Ottoman Empire came to these lands.

9. For almost 200 years, the Parthenon acted as... a mosque

It is not surprising that the Parthenon has undergone several transformations over its long history, as this is quite common for many ancient structures. In the 1460s, when Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, the temple was converted into a mosque and served as such for almost 200 years. As the authors of the site learned, the minaret was formed from a tower that was previously used as a bell tower, because before that a Catholic church was created here.

10. Some Parthenon sculptures are kept in the British Museum

At a time when Greece was still under Ottoman rule, the Scottish nobleman Thomas Bruce removed half of the Parthenon sculptures that had survived at that time. The British claim that he received permission from the Ottomans, and in 1800-1803. they were transported by sea to Great Britain and are now in the British Museum.

But most experts agree that the Parthenon marbles, the greatest example of classical Greek fine arts, were sold by enterprising Turks. But be that as it may, for more than a decade Greece has been calling on the British to return unique ancient sculptures to their homeland, but no agreement has been reached on this issue.

Any work of art that has been the main attraction of the country in which it is located for many centuries is surrounded by rumors and legends. Truth and fiction are closely intertwined in traditions and legends passed on from mouth to mouth. The ever-falling Leaning Tower of Pisa was no exception, which for many years has undergone not only the pilgrimage of millions of tourists, but also reconstruction, because

Icon Western civilization, is one of the most famous buildings in the world. The temple was built in the fifth century BC overlooking the city of Athens from its majestic position on top of the sacred Acropolis mountain.The Parthenon was created in honor of the goddess Athena Parthenos (Virgin Athena), the patroness of the city of Athens. The temple was originally known as the Great Temple (Megas Naos), but later became known as the Parthenon.

Today's Parthenon was not the first temple built here in antiquity. There are traces of two earlier and slightly smaller temples: the first of stone, and the second of marble.

Soon after the Persians destroyed all the buildings on the Acropolis in 480 BC, Pericles commissioned the construction of a new one big temple and the project was led by the architect and sculptor Phidias. The design of the Parthenon is attributed to Callicrates and Ictinus. Construction began in 447 BC and the temple was completed just nine years later. Phidias continued to work on the magnificent sculptures that decorated the temple until 432 BC.

After antiquity, the Parthenon was converted into a church and during the Turkish occupation of Athens it was used as an arsenal. It fell into ruin only in 1687, during the Turkish siege, the Venetians bombarded the Acropolis from Philopappos Hill. The ammunition that was stored in the Parthenon exploded, destroying the roof, interior and fourteen columns.

The Parthenon was built as a peripterus - a temple surrounded by columns - in the Doric order. The temple measures 30.86 by 69.51 meters and contained two cella (the internal main parts of the ancient temple). The eastern cella housed a large statue of the goddess Athena. Western - was exclusively for priests and contained the treasury of the union of Greek city-states.

The Parthenon was decorated with numerous sculptures and reliefs. There were fifty sculptures on the pediments alone. Most of the surviving sculptures are on display at the British Museum in London, while some are in the nearby Acropolis Museum. There were two friezes: an internal one in cella and an external one, which consisted of triglyphs (vertical stripes) and metopes (rectangular slabs) with relief sculptures. The interior frieze was designed by Phidias and depicted the Panathenaea, a festival in honor of Athena. Many metopes and interior parts of the frieze can also be seen in the British Museum.

To achieve visual perfection, the creators of the Parthenon used optical techniques, seemingly defying the laws of perspective. The speakers are slightly tilted inward and have a curved shape. As a result, the horizontal and vertical lines of the building appear perfectly straight to the naked eye.

Most people think that ancient temples always had simple marble colors. But buildings and statues in antiquity were often very colorful. The Parthenon in Athens was no exception: the sculptures on the friezes and pediment, as well as the roof, were brightly painted in blue, red and gold.

The main pride of the temple is the approximately twelve-meter statue of Athena Parthenos, created by Phidias. The statue was created from gold and ivory on a wooden frame. Like all other Parthenon sculptures, the statue was painted in bright colors, mostly blue and red.

The creators of the Athenian Acropolis undoubtedly knew about the special purpose and existence of the Parthenon. Universal truths always break through from the heights of their existence and become reality in the actions of creators endowed with the Divine prophetic gift. Moreover, the meaning of secret knowledge may even be unknown to them. It is enough that they are creators acting in accordance with the intentions of the Higher Powers.

The creators of the Athenian Acropolis could not help but belong to people for whom secret knowledge was revealed, because otherwise the path of appearance into the world would have been prohibited for the divinely beautiful buildings. At the same time, the authors had to be in a free search - to independently choose what they should or should not do.

Fragment of the painting “Phidias showing the Parthenon frieze to friends.” Hood, Lawrence Alma-Tadema. 1868

Cicero wrote about Phidias: “When he created Athena and Zeus, he had no earthly original in front of him that he could use. But in his soul lived that prototype of beauty, which he embodied in matter. It is not without reason that they say about Phidias that he worked in a fit of inspiration, which lifts the spirit above everything earthly, in which the divine spirit is directly visible - this heavenly guest, as Plato puts it.”

Phidias possessed a lot of knowledge, for example, from the field of optics. A story has been preserved about his rivalry with Alcamenes: both were ordered statues of Athena, which were supposed to be erected on high columns. Phidias made his statue in accordance with the height of the column - on the ground it seemed ugly and disproportionate. The people almost stoned him. When both statues were erected on high pedestals, the correctness of Phidias became obvious, and Alkamen was ridiculed.

Many believe that the “Golden Ratio” was designated in algebra by the Greek letter φ precisely in honor of Phidias, the master who embodied this ratio in his works.

Phidias's fame was colossal, but most of his works have not survived, and we can only judge them from copies and descriptions of ancient authors.

The current study of the Parthenon using a kind of “drawing drawing board”, which designers used in the pre-computer era, allows us to be irrefutably strictly and accurately convinced of the different sizes of ALL columns and ALL intercolumnia (intercolumn spaces), which only seem identical and placed perpendicularly. There is not a single figure in this poem of numbers, which would be identical in comparison with others and would be in an identical position. All columns have a common slope towards the center of the colonnade and this slope varies depending on the place they occupy in the general row. The slope is very small - from 6.5 cm to 8.3 cm, but it is concentric in nature, and this construction of columnar rows involves the colonnades in a common "force converging at one point." Where is this point? Somewhere where the Gods reign. We draw conclusions from the general curvature discovered by research preceding the latest restoration of the temple...

IN THE PARTHENON - A SYMBOL OF THE IMMACURABILITY OF COMMON FOUNDATIONS -
THERE IS NOTHING THAT IS NOT VARIABLE AND PERMANENT.
OF COURSE, ETERNITY IS SEALED IN THE PARTHENON, BUT SPECIAL:
NOT AN ABSTRACT ABSOLUTE, BUT LIVING LIFE.

THIS ENDOWS THE PARTHENON WITH THAT PERFECTION
WHAT MAKES HIM INTO A SPIRITUAL BEING—
THE EARTHLY AND THE DIVINE ARE INSEPARATELY.

ACCORDINGLY, THE PARTHENON BECOMES THE POWER THAT
WHAT LINKES TWO WORLDS: GODS AND PEOPLE,
OR EXISTENTIAL AND CO-EXISTENTIAL, HEAVENLY AND EARTHLY,
PERFECT AND RELATIVE, ETERNAL AND CURRENT...

THE EXISTENCE OF THE PARTHENON ITSELF IS TRAGICAL,
AND THIS TRAGEDY IS THAT HE FLOats.
BELONGING TO NEITHER THE REAL NOR THE UNREAL WORLDS.
IS THERE A PARTHENON, IS IT HERE? HE IS NO LONGER, HE IS THERE...
WITH THE LOSS OF THE PARTHENON AT THE EPICENTER OF WORLD CULTURE
A VOID IS FORMED, WHICH ASPIRATION WILL DO
TO ACHIEVE TRUTH AND GOOD IS EMPTY - VAIN.

WE ALL COME FROM HELLAS -
WE ARE GENETICALLY CONNECTED WITH HER FOREVER.

All structural elements of the Parthenon, including the roof of the roof and the steps of the stylobate, were hewn from local Pentelic marble, almost white immediately after extraction, but over time acquiring a warm yellowish tint. No mortar or cement was used and the masonry was done dry. The blocks were carefully adjusted to each other, the horizontal connection between them was maintained with the help of I-beam iron fasteners, and the vertical connection with the help of iron pins.

All this is very interesting, but does not help much in understanding the artistic content of the Parthenon. This method of construction made it possible to achieve the mathematical and geometric precision of the temple, which captivates the mind as an elegant solution to a theorem.

This is how it should be, because it cannot be otherwise. All the straight lines that make up the Parthenon are only relative straight lines, like all straight lines in life. The same can be said about circles and proportions. The mathematics of the material Parthenon is nothing more than the desire for mathematical perfection: there is no other accuracy in it than the accuracy of the real world, known by man and reproduced by art - it is always relative and moving.

Recent studies of the Parthenon bring us closer to understanding the mystery that raises the method of its construction above I-beams and iron pins...

Ancient sources call Phidias the leader of the work to create a large and varied sculptural decoration Parthenon. That was the time when the Acropolis lay in ruins, built up before the Greco-Persian wars with religious buildings, decorated with many dedicatory statues. Speaking at the National Assembly, Pericles proposed to the Athenians: “The city is sufficiently supplied with what is necessary for war, so the surplus funds should be used for buildings , which, after their completion, will bring immortal glory to the citizens, and during the work will improve their financial situation.”

The Parthenon (ancient Greek: Παρθενών; modern Greek: Παρθενώνας) is an ancient temple in , dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the Athenians considered their patroness. Construction began in 447 BC. BC, when the Athenian Empire was at the peak of its power. It ended in 438 BC. e., although the decoration of the building continued until 432 BC. e. It is the most important surviving building of classical Greece, the zenith of which is generally considered to be the Doric order. The decorative sculptures of the Parthenon are considered among the most successful in Greek art. And the Parthenon itself is a symbol of Ancient Greece, Athenian democracy and Western civilization, and one of the greatest cultural monuments in the world. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently implementing a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially destroyed structure.

The Parthenon, replaced by what historians call the Pre-Parthenon, was destroyed during the Persian invasion of 480 BC. e. The temple was built archaeoastronomically, according to the Hyades star cluster. Despite the fact that the sacred building was dedicated to the patron goddess of the city, it was actually used as a treasury. At one time, it served as the treasury of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon, which was converted into a Christian church, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

After the Ottoman conquest in the early 60s of the 15th century, it was turned into a mosque. On September 26, 1687, due to the Venetian bombardment, Ottoman ammunition stored in the building caught fire. The explosion seriously damaged the Parthenon and its sculptures. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, removed some of the surviving sculptures, ostensibly with Ottoman permission. They are now known as the Elgin or Parthenon Marbles. In 1816 they were sold to the British Museum in London, where they are exhibited today. Since 1983 (on the initiative of the Minister of Culture Melina Mercouri), the Greek government decided to return the sculptures to Greece.

Etymology

Originally, the name "Parthenon" came from the Greek word παρθενών (parthenon), and was referred to in the sense of "unmarried women's rooms" in a house, and in the case of the Parthenon, perhaps only a separate room of the temple was used at first. There is debate as to what room this was and how it got its name. According to the work of Lidle, Scott, Jones "Greek-English Lexicon" it was the western cella of the Parthenon. Jamari Greene believes that the Parthenon was the room in which peplum was presented to Athena at the Panathenaic Games. It was woven by the Arrephoros, four girls who were chosen every year to serve Athena. Christopher Pelling argues that the Athena Parthenos may represent a separate cult of Athena, closely related, but not identical, to the cult of Athena Polias. According to this theory, the name Parthenon means "temple of the virgin goddess" and refers to the cult of Athena Parthenos, which was associated with this temple. The epithet "parthenos" (παρθένος), the origin of which is unknown, means "maiden, girl", but also "virgin, unmarried woman", and was primarily used in relation to Artemis, goddess of wild animals, hunting and vegetation, and Athena, goddess of strategy and tactics, craft and practical reason. There is also speculation that the name of the temple refers to the maidens (parthenos), whose supreme sacrifice guarantees the safety of the city.

© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014

The first instance in which the name Parthenon clearly refers to the entire building was found in the writings of the orator Demosthenes, dating from the 4th century BC. In the 5th century the building was seen as a structure simply called ho naos ("temple"). It is believed that the architects Mnesicles and Kallicrates called it Hekatompodos ("one hundred feet") in their lost treatise on Athenian architecture, and in the 4th century and later, it was known as Hekatompedos or Hekatompedon, like the Parthenon; in the 1st century AD e. the writer Plutarch called the building Hekatompedon Parthenon.

Because the Parthenon was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, it was sometimes called the Temple of Minerva, the Roman name for Athena, especially in the 19th century.

Purpose

Although architecturally the Parthenon is a temple and is usually called that, in the generally accepted sense of the word this is not entirely true. A small temple was found inside the building, on the site of an old one, probably dedicated to Athena as a way to get closer to the goddess, but the Parthenon itself never accepted the cult of Athena Polis, the patroness of Athens; The cult image, which was washed in the sea and presented with peplos, was the olive xoan, located on the old altar in the northern part of the Acropolis.

The magnificent statue of Athena, by Phidias, was not associated with any cult and it is not known whether it kindled any religious fervor. She probably did not have a priestess, altar or cult name. According to Thucydides, Pericles once called the statue a gold reserve, emphasizing that it "consisted of forty talents of pure gold, and they could be taken out." The Athenian statesman thus assumed that the metal obtained from modern coinage could be used again without any disrespect. The Parthenon was then seen more as a large setting for a votive statue of Phidias, rather than a place of worship. It is said that many Greek authors in their works described the countless treasures stored inside the temple, such as Persian swords and small statues made from precious metals.

Archaeologist Joan Breton Connelly has recently championed the connection of the Parthenon's sculptural plan in presenting a series of genealogical accounts that trace Athenian features back through the centuries: from the birth of Athena, through cosmic and epic battles, to the great final event of the Athenian Bronze Age, the War of Erechtheus and Eumolpus. She argues that the pedagogical function of the Parthenon's sculptural decoration establishes and reinforces the Athenian foundations of myth, memory, values ​​and identity. Connelly's thesis is controversial and some well-known classicists such as Mary Beard, Peter Green and Garry Wheels have either questioned it or simply rejected it.

Early history

Old Parthenon

The initial desire to build a sanctuary of Athena Parthenos on the site of the present Parthenon was realized soon after the Battle of Marathon (ca. 490-488 BC) on a foundation of solid limestone, which was located at the southern part of the top of the Acropolis. This building replaced the Hekatompedon (i.e. "one hundred feet") and stood next to the archaic temple dedicated to Athena Polias. The Old Parthenon, or Pre-Parthenon as it is often called, was still under construction when it was built in 480 BC. e. the Persians sacked the city and destroyed the Acropolis.

The existence of the proto-Parthenon and its destruction is known from Herodotus. The drums of its columns were clearly visible and were built after the load-bearing wall north of the Erechtheion. Further material evidence of this structure was revealed during the excavations of Panagis Kavadias in 1885-1890. Their results allowed Wilhelm Dörpfeld, then director of the German Archaeological Institute, to argue that there was an underground structure in the original Parthenon, called Parthenon I, which was not located exactly below the current building, as previously thought. Dörpfeld's observation was that three of the steps of the first Parthenon were made of limestone, two of which were porous, like the base, and the top step of Carkha limestone, which was covered by the lowest step of Pericles' Parthenon. This platform was smaller and located just north of the final Parthenon, indicating that it was built for a completely different building, now completely covered. The picture was somewhat complicated by the publication of the final report of the excavations in 1885-1890, which indicated that this underground structure was of the same age as the walls built by Cimon, and implied a later date for the first temple.

Plan of the Parthenon, photo: public domain

If the original Parthenon was indeed destroyed in 480, this raises the question of why the site remained in ruins for thirty-three years. One argument suggests an oath taken by the Greek allies before the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. e., according to which the sanctuaries destroyed by the Persians will not be restored. Only in 450, with the conclusion of the Peace of Callias, did the Athenians free themselves from this oath. The mundane fact about the cost of rebuilding Athens after the Persian sack is not as plausible as its reason. However, Bert Hodge Hill's excavations led him to propose the existence of a second Parthenon, created during the reign of Cimon after 468 BC. e. Hill argued that the Carja limestone step, which Dörpfeld thought was the tallest in Parthenon I, was in fact the lowest of the three steps of Parthenon II, whose stylobate, according to Hill, measured 23.51 by 66.888 meters (77.13 × 219.45 feet).

One of the difficulties in dating the proto-Parthenon is that at the time of the excavations in 1885, the archaeological method of seriation was not fully developed; careless digging and backfilling of the site led to the loss large quantity valuable information. Attempts to discuss and comprehend the clay shards found in the Acropolis were realized in a two-volume work by Graf and Langlotz, published in 1925-1933. This inspired the American archaeologist William Bell Dinsmoor to try to establish extreme dates for the temple platform and its five walls, hidden under the re-terracing of the Acropolis. Dinsmoor concluded that the last possible date for Parthenon I was no earlier than 495 BC. e., which contradicts the earlier date established by Dörpfield. Moreover, Dinsmoor denied the existence of two proto-Parthenons and established that the only temple before the Temple of Pericles was the one Dörpfeld called Parthenon II. In 1935, Dinsmoor and Dorpfield exchanged opinions in the American Journal of Archaeology.

Modern construction

In the middle of the 5th century BC. BC, when the Athenian Acropolis became the seat of the Delian League, and Athens was the greatest cultural center of its time, Pericles initiated an ambitious building project that lasted throughout the second half of the century. During this period, the most important buildings that can be seen on the Acropolis today were built: the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon was built under the general direction of Phidias, who was also responsible for the sculptural decoration. The architects Ictinus and Callicrates began their work in 447 BC. BC, and by 432 the building was completed, but decoration work continued until at least 431. Some financial records survive for the Parthenon, which show that the largest expense was transporting the stones from Mount Pentelikon, about 16 km (9.9 mi) from Athens, to the Acropolis. These funds were partly taken from the treasury of the Delian League, transferred from the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delos to the Acropolis in 454 BC. e.

Architecture

The Parthenon is an octastyle Doric temple surrounded by columns with Ionic architectural features. It stands on a platform or stylobate of three steps. Like other Greek temples, it has a lintel and is surrounded by columns carrying an entablature. At each end there are eight columns ("octastyle"), and on the sides there are seventeen. Also, at each end of the column, there are two rows of columns. The colonnade surrounds an internal stone structure - a cella, divided into two rooms. At both ends of the building, the roof ends in a triangular pediment, originally filled with sculptures. The columns are of the Doric order with a simple capital, fluted shaft and no base. Above the architrave is a frieze of illustrated carved panels (metopes) separated by a triglyph, typical of the Doric order. Around the cella and along the lintels of the internal columns there is a continuous sculptural frieze in the form of bas-relief. This element of architecture is more Ionic than Doric.

Measured on the stylobate, the dimensions of the Parthenon's base are 69.5 by 30.9 meters (228 by 101 ft). The cella was 29.8 meters long and 19.2 meters wide (97.8 x 63.0 ft) with an internal colonnade in two rows, structurally necessary to support the roof. Externally, the Doric columns measured 1.9 meters (6.2 ft) in diameter and 10.4 meters (34 ft) in height. The diameter of the corner columns was slightly larger. In total, the Parthenon had 23 internal and 46 external columns, each containing 20 flutes. (A flute is a concave groove carved in the shape of a column). The stylobate had a curvature that increased towards the center by 60 mm (2.4 in) at the east and west ends and 110 mm (4.3 in) at the sides. The roof was covered with large overlapping marble tiles known as tegula and tegula tiles.

© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014

The Parthenon is considered the best example of Greek architecture. John Julius Cooper wrote that the temple “enjoys the reputation of being the most perfect Doric temple ever built. Even in antiquity, his architectural improvements were legendary, especially the subtle relationship between the curvature of the stylobates, the inclination of the cella walls and the entasis of the columns." Entasis refers to the slight decrease in the diameter of columns as they rise, although the observed effect in the Parthenon is much more subtle than in earlier temples. Stylobate is a platform on which columns stand. Like many other classical Greek temples, it has a slight parabolic increase in curvature to drain rainwater and strengthen the building against earthquakes. Perhaps this is why the columns were supposed to lean outward, but in fact they leaned slightly inward so that if they continued they would meet almost exactly a mile above the center of the Parthenon; since they are all of the same height, the curvature of the outer edge of the stylobate is transferred to the architrave and the roof: “The whole subsequent principle of construction is based on a slight curvature,” Gorham Stevens noted this when he pointed out that the western façade was built slightly higher than the southern one. It is not universally established what the intended effect of entasis is; it is possible that it served as a kind of “reverse optical illusion.” Because the Greeks may have known that two parallel lines slope, or bend outward, when crossing converging lines. In this case, it seems that the ceiling and floor of the temple are leaning towards the corners of the building. In their quest for perfection, the designers may have added these curves, adding to the illusion by creating curves of their own, thus negating the effect and allowing the temple to be what it was intended to be. It has also been suggested that it was used to “revitalize” a building without curves that would perhaps have the appearance of an inert mass, but the comparison should be with the more obvious curved predecessors of the Parthenon, and not with a conventionally rectilinear temple.

Some studies of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon, have concluded that many of its proportions are close to the golden ratio. The Parthenon's façade, as well as its elements, can be described by a golden rectangle. This view was refuted in later studies.

Sculpture

The cella of the Parthenon housed the chrysoelephantine statue of Athena Parthenos by Phidias, created in 439 or 438 BC. e.

Initially, decorative stonework was very colorful. At that time, the temple was dedicated to Athena, although construction continued almost until the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 432. By 438, the sculptural decoration of the Doric metopes on the frieze above the outer colonnade and the decoration of the Ionic frieze around the top of the cella wall were completed.

The richness of the frieze and metopes is consistent with the temple's purpose as a treasury. The opisthodome (back room of the cella) housed the monetary contributions of the Delian League, of which Athens was a leading member. Today, the surviving sculptures are kept in the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the British Museum in London, and several items are in Paris, Rome, Vienna and Palermo.

Metopes

The frieze of the entablature contains ninety-two metopes, fourteen each on the east and west sides, and thirty-two each on the north and south. They are carved in bas-relief, a practice used only for treasuries (the building was used to store votive gifts to the gods). According to construction documentation, the metope sculptures date back to 446-440 BC. e. Metopes of the Parthenon, above the main entrance, on east side depict a gigantomachy (mythical battle between the Olympian gods and giants). The metopes on the western side show the Amazonomachy (mythical battle of the Athenians against the Amazons), and on the south the Thessalian centauromachy (battle of the Lapiths, aided by Theseus, against the half-human, half-horse centaurs). Metopes 13 to 21 are missing, but drawings attributed to Jacques Curry indicate groups of people; they have been variously interpreted as scenes from the wedding of Lapith, scenes from early history Athens and various myths. On the north side of the Parthenon, the metopes are poorly preserved, but the plot resembles the destruction of Troy.

The metopes are exemplified by the strict style in the anatomy of the figures' heads, in the limitation of physical movements to contours but not to the muscles, and in the pronounced veins in the centauromachy figures. Some of them still remain on the building, with the exception of those on the north side, as they are badly damaged. Several metopes are in the Acropolis Museum, others are in the British Museum, and one in the Louvre.

In March 2011, archaeologists announced that they had discovered five Parthenon metopes on the south wall of the Acropolis, which was extended when the Acropolis was used as a fortress. According to the daily newspaper Eleftherotype, archaeologists claimed that the metopes were placed there in the 18th century, when the wall was being restored. Experts discovered the metopes when processing 2,250 photographs using modern photographic methods. They were made from white Pentelic marble, which is different from the other stone on the wall. It was previously assumed that the missing metopes were destroyed during the explosion of the Parthenon in 1687.

© website, in the photo: The Parthenon today, July 2014

Frieze

The most distinctive feature in the architecture and decoration of the temple is the Ionic frieze around the outer walls of the cella (the interior of the Parthenon). The bas-relief frieze was carved at the construction site; it dates back to 442-438 BC. e. One interpretation is that it depicts an idealized version of the procession of the Panathenaic Games from the Dipylon gate at Kerameikos to the Acropolis. This procession, which took place every year, was attended by Athenians and foreigners to honor the goddess Athena by offering sacrifices and new peplos (cloth woven by specially selected noble Athenian maidens).

Joan Breton Connelly suggests mythological interpretation frieze, which is in harmony with the rest of the sculptural plan of the temple, and shows the Athenian genealogy through a series of myths from the distant past. She identifies the central panel above the Parthenon door as the sacrifice made before the battle by the daughter of King Erechtheus, which secured victory over Eumolplus and his Thracian army. A large procession moved towards the eastern part of the Parthenon, displaying a post-battle thanksgiving offering of cattle and sheep, honey and water, following the triumphant army of Erechtheus as it returned victorious. In mythical times, these were the very first Panathenaea, the model on which the historical processions of the Panathenaic Games were based.

Pediments

When the traveler Pausanias visited the Acropolis at the end of the 2nd century AD, he only briefly mentioned the sculptures of the temple pediments (gabel ends), leaving the main place to describe the gold and ivory statue of the goddess that was located inside the temple.

East gable

The east pediment tells the story of the birth of Athena from the head of her father Zeus. According to Greek mythology Zeus gave life to Athena after the terrible headache prompted him to call Hephaestus (god of fire and blacksmithing) to provide assistance. To relieve the pain, he ordered Hephaestus to hit him with a hammer, and when he did, Zeus's head split open and the goddess Athena emerged from it, all dressed in armor. The sculptural composition depicts the moment of the birth of Athena.

Unfortunately, the central part of the pediment was destroyed even before Jacques Curry, who in 1674 created useful documentary drawings, therefore, all restoration work is the subject of assumptions and hypotheses. Main olympian gods must be standing around Zeus and Athena, watching the miraculous event, probably with Hephaestus and Hera near them. Kerry's drawings played an important role in restoring the sculptural composition on the north and south sides.

West gable

The western pediment overlooked the Propylaea and depicted the struggle between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the patron of the city. They appear in the center of the composition, and diverge from each other in strict diagonal shapes, the goddess holds an olive tree, and the sea god raises his trident to strike the ground. On the sides, they are flanked by two groups of horses pulling chariots, while the space in the sharp corners of the pediment is filled with legendary characters from Athenian mythology.

Work on the pediments continued from 438 to 432 BC. e., and the sculptures on them are considered one of the best examples of classical Greek art. The figures are created in natural movements, and the bodies are full of vital energy that breaks through their flesh, which in turn breaks through their thin clothing. Thin chitons show the lower part of the body as the center of the composition. By placing the sculptures in stone, the sculptors erased the differences between gods and men, and the conceptual relationship between idealism and naturalism. The gables no longer exist.

Drawing of the statue “Athena Parthenos” installed inside the Parthenon

Athena Parthenos

Only one sculpture from the Parthenon is known to belong to the hand of Phidias, a statue of Athena, which was located in the naos. This massive gold and ivory sculpture is now lost. It is known only from copies, vase paintings, jewelry, literary descriptions and coins.

Late period of history

Late Antiquity

In the middle of the third century AD, a major fire broke out at the Parthenon, which destroyed the roof and most of temple interior. In the fourth century AD, restoration work was carried out, probably during the reign of Flavius ​​Claudius Julian. To cover the sanctuary, a new wooden roof was laid, covered with clay tiles. It had a greater slope than the original roof, and the wings of the building were left open.

For almost a thousand years, the Parthenon continued to exist as a temple, dedicated to Athena, until in 435 AD. e. Theodosius II did not decide to close everything pagan temples in Byzantium. In the fifth century, one of the emperors stole the great cult image of Athena and took it to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed, possibly during the siege of Constantinople in 1204 AD. e.

Christian Church

In the last decades of the sixth century AD, the Parthenon was converted into a Christian church, called the Church of Maria Parthenos (Virgin Mary), or the Church of Theotokos (Mother of God). The orientation of the building was changed, turning the facade to the east; The main entrance was moved to the western end of the building, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were located on the eastern side of the building next to the apse, built on the site where the temple's pronaos had previously been located.

A large central entrance with adjacent side doors was made in the wall dividing the cella, which became the church nave, from the back room, the vestibule of the church. The gaps between the columns of the opisthodome and peristyle were walled up, however, the number of entrances to the room was sufficient. Icons were painted on the walls and carved in the columns. christian inscriptions. These renovations inevitably led to the removal of some sculptures. Images of gods were either interpreted in accordance with Christian themes, or were confiscated and destroyed.

The Parthenon became the fourth most important site of Christian pilgrimage in the eastern part of the Roman Empire, after Constantinople, Ephesus and Thessalonica. In 1018, Emperor Basil II made a pilgrimage to Athens, immediately after his final victory over the Bulgarians, for the sole purpose of visiting the church at the Parthenon. In medieval Greek records it was called the Temple of the Virgin of Athens (Theotokos Atheniotissa) and was often referred to indirectly as famous, without precisely explaining which temple was meant, thus confirming that it was indeed famous.

During the Latin occupation, for approximately 250 years, it became the Roman Catholic Church of the Virgin Mary. During this period, a tower was built on the southwest corner of the cella, which was used as a watchtower or as a bell tower with a spiral staircase, and also as vaulted tombs under the floor of the Parthenon.

Islamic mosque

In 1456, Ottoman forces invaded Athens and besieged the Florentine army, which defended the Acropolis until June 1458, when the city fell to the Turkish. The Turks quickly restored the Parthenon for continued use as a church by Greek Christians. For some time, before its closure in the fifteenth century, the Parthenon became a mosque.

The exact circumstances under which the Turks took possession of it for use as a mosque are unclear; one source states that Mehmed II ordered its reconstruction as punishment for the Athenian plot against the Ottoman Empire.

The apse, which became a mihrab (a tower built earlier during the Roman Catholic occupation of the Parthenon), was extended upward to make a minaret, a minbar was installed, and the Christian altar and iconostasis were removed, and the walls were whitewashed to cover icons of Christian saints and others christian images.

Despite the changes that accompanied the Parthenon, conversion into a church and then into a mosque, its structure remains largely unchanged. In 1667, Turkish traveler Evliya Celebi expressed admiration for the Parthenon sculptures and figuratively described the building as “a kind of impregnable fortress not created by man.” He composed poetic prayers: “the work of lesser human hands than Heaven itself must endure for a long time.”

The French artist Jacques Kerry visited the Acropolis in 1674 and made sketches of the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon. In early 1687, an engineer named Plantier painted the Parthenon for the Frenchman Gravi Dortier. These images, especially those made by Kerry, became important evidence of the condition of the Parthenon and its sculptures before the destruction in late 1687 and the subsequent looting of its works.

Destruction of the Parthenon as a result of the explosion of a gunpowder magazine during the Venetian-Turkish War. 1687 Drawing unknown artist.

Destruction

In 1687 the Parthenon was badly damaged in the greatest disaster that has ever befallen it in its long history. The Venetians sent an expedition led by Francesco Morosini to attack and capture the Acropolis. The Ottoman Turks fortified the Acropolis and used the Parthenon as a magazine for ammunition - despite the dangers of such use after the 1656 explosion that severely damaged the Propylaea - and to shelter members of the local Turkish community. On September 26, a Venetian mortar fired from the Philopappa Hill blew up the cellar and partially destroyed the building. The explosion smashed the central part of the building into smithereens and caused the cella to collapse. Greek architect and archaeologist Cornelia Hatziaslani writes that “... three of the four walls of the sanctuary almost collapsed and three-fifths of the frieze sculptures fell. It is obvious that no part of the roof remained in place. Six columns on the south side and eight on the north fell, and nothing remained of the eastern portico, except for one column. Along with the columns, a huge marble architrave, triglyphs and menotopes collapsed.” The explosion killed approximately three hundred people, who were buried in marble debris near the Turkish defenders. It also started several large fires that burned until the next day and destroyed many houses.

During the conflict, notes were made as to whether the destruction was intentional or accidental; One of these records belongs to the German officer Zobifolski, which states that a Turkish deserter gave Morosini information about what the Turks were using the Parthenon for, expecting that the Venetians would not target a building of such historical importance. In response, Morosini directed artillery at the Parthenon. Subsequently, he attempted to loot sculptures from the ruins and cause further damage to the building. When the soldiers tried to remove the sculptures of Poseidon and the horses of Athena from the western pediment of the building, they fell to the ground and were broken.

IN next year the Venetians abandoned Athens to avoid confrontation with the large Turkish army assembled in Chalkis; At that time, the Venetians took into account the explosion, after which almost nothing was left of the Parthenon and the rest of the Acropolis, and rejected the possibility of its further use by the Turks as a fortress, but such an idea was not pursued.

After the Turks recaptured the Acropolis, they built a small mosque within the walls of the destroyed Parthenon, using the ruins from the explosion. Over the next century and a half, the remaining parts of the structure were looted for building materials and other valuables.

The 18th century was the period of the “sick man of Europe”; as a result, many Europeans were able to visit Athens, and the picturesque ruins of the Parthenon became the subject of many paintings and drawings, spurring the growth of the philhellenes and helping to awaken British and French sympathy for Greek independence. Among these early travelers and archaeologists were James Stewart and Nicholas Revett, who were commissioned by the Society of Dilettantes to explore the ruins of classical Athens.

They created drawings of the Parthenon, while taking measurements, which in 1787 published in two volumes Antiquities of Athens Measured and Delineated (Antiquities of Athens: Measured and Delineated). In 1801, the British ambassador to Constantinople, the Earl of Elgin, received a dubious firman (decree) from the Sultan, whose existence or legitimacy has not been proven to this day, to make casts and drawings of the antiquities of the Acropolis, and to demolish the last buildings, if necessary examine the antiquities, and remove the sculptures .

Independent Greece

When independent Greece gained control of Athens in 1832, the visible part of the minaret was destroyed; Only its base and the spiral staircase up to the architrave level remained intact. Soon all the medieval and Ottoman buildings built on top of the Acropolis were destroyed. However, Joly de Lotbinière's photograph of a small mosque in the cella of the Parthenon survives, published in Lerbeau's album Excursions Daguerriennes in 1842: the first photograph of the Acropolis. This area became a historical site controlled by the Greek government. Today it attracts millions of tourists every year. They follow the road at the western end of the Acropolis, through the restored Propylaea and up the Panathenaic Way to the Parthenon, which is surrounded by a low fence to prevent damage.

Marble sculpture controversy

The center of the dispute was the marble sculptures taken by the Earl of Elgin from the Parthenon, which are in the British Museum. There are also several sculptures from the Parthenon on display in the Louvre in Paris, in Copenhagen, and elsewhere, but more than fifty percent are in the Acropolis Museum in Athens. Some can still be seen on the building itself. Since 1983, the Greek government has been campaigning to return the sculptures to Greece from the British Museum.

The British Museum has steadfastly refused to return the sculptures, and successive British governments have been unwilling to force the museum to do so (which would have required legislative action). However, negotiations between senior representatives of the Greek and British ministries of culture and their legal advisers took place in London on 4 May 2007. These were the first serious negotiations for several years, with hopes that both sides could take a step closer to a resolution.

© website, in the photo: Parthenon columns in scaffolding

Recovery

In 1975, the Greek government began a coordinated effort to restore the Parthenon and other structures on the Acropolis. After some delay, the Committee for the Conservation of Monuments of the Acropolis was created in 1983. The project later attracted funding and technical assistance from the European Union. The archaeological committee carefully documented every artifact remaining there, and with the help of computer models, architects determined their original location. Particularly important and fragile sculptures were transferred to the Acropolis Museum. A crane was installed to move the marble blocks. In some cases, previous reconstructions turned out to be incorrect. Dismantling was carried out, and the restoration process began anew. Originally, the various blocks were held together by elongated iron H-joints, which were completely coated with lead to protect the iron from corrosion. The stabilizing connectors added in the 19th century were less leaded and susceptible to corrosion. Since the product of corrosion (rust) tends to expand, it caused further damage to the already cracked marble. All new metalwork consisted of titanium, a strong, lightweight and corrosion-resistant material.

The Parthenon will not be restored to its pre-1687 condition, but damage from the explosion will be repaired to the extent possible. In the interest of restoring the building's structural integrity (important in this seismic zone) and aesthetic integrity, the broken portions of the column drums and lintels will be filled using precision-cut marble anchored in place. New Pentelic marble from the original quarry is used. Eventually, almost all large pieces of marble will be placed where they originally were, supported, if necessary, by modern materials. Over time, the white repaired parts will become less noticeable than the original surfaces that were exposed to weathering.

The great temple, the Parthenon, was built in Athens during the heyday of Greece in the 5th century BC. as a gift to the patron goddess of the city. Until now, this amazing temple, even being badly destroyed, never ceases to amaze with its harmony and beauty. The fate of the Parthenon is no less fascinating - it had to see a lot.

After the Greek victory over the Persians, the “golden age” of Attica began. The actual ruler of Ancient Hellas at that time was Pericles, who was very popular among the people. Being a very educated person, possessing a lively mind and oratorical talent, enormous endurance and hard work, he had great influence on impressionable townspeople and successfully carried out his plans.

In Athens, Pericles launched large-scale construction work, and it was under him that a magnificent temple ensemble grew on the Acropolis, the crown of which was the Parthenon. To implement the grandiose plans, the architectural geniuses Iktion and Callicrates and one of the best sculptors Phidias were brought in.

The grandiose construction also required colossal expenses, but Pericles did not skimp, for which he was more than once accused of wastefulness. Pericles was adamant. Speaking to residents, he explained: “The city is sufficiently supplied with the necessities of war, therefore the surplus in funds should be used for buildings that, after their completion, will bring immortal glory to the citizens.”. And the citizens supported their ruler. The entire construction cost was enough to create a fleet of 450 trireme warships.

In turn, Pericles demanded that the architects create a real masterpiece, and the brilliant masters did not let him down. After 15 years, a unique structure was built - a majestic and at the same time light and airy temple, the architecture of which was unlike any other.

The spacious premises of the temple (approximately 70x30 meters) were surrounded on all sides along the perimeter by columns; this type of building is called a periptor.

White marble was used as the main building material, which was brought 20 km away. This marble, which immediately after extraction is pure white, under the influence of sunlight, began to turn yellow, and as a result, the Parthenon turned out to be unevenly colored - its northern side was gray-ash in color, and its southern side was golden yellow. But this did not spoil the temple at all, but, on the contrary, made it more interesting.

During construction, dry masonry was used, without mortar. Polished marble blocks were connected to each other with iron pins (vertically) and clamps (horizontally). Currently, Japanese seismologists have become actively interested in the construction technologies used in its construction.

This temple has another unique feature. From the outside, its silhouette appears absolutely smooth and flawless, but in fact there is not a single straight detail in its contours. In order to level out the results of perspective, slopes, curvatures or thickening of parts were used - columns, roofing, cornices. Ingenious architects have developed a unique adjustment system using optical tricks.

Many people believe that all ancient temples had a natural color, but this was not always the case. IN ancient period They tried to make many buildings and structures colorful. The Parthenon was no exception. The main colors dominating his palette were blue, red and gold.
The interior was decorated with many different sculptures, but the main one among them was the legendary 12-meter statue of Athena in the form of the goddess of war, Athena Parthenos, the best creation of Phidias. All her clothes and weapons were made of gold plates, and ivory was used for the exposed parts of her body. More than a ton of gold was spent on this statue alone.

Dark days of the Parthenon

In the 15th century, after the capture of Athens by the Turks, the temple began to be used as a mosque. During the next siege of Athens in 1687, the Turks turned the Acropolis into a citadel and the Parthenon into a gunpowder magazine, relying on its thick walls. But as a result of being hit by a cannonball from a powerful explosion, the temple collapsed and there was practically nothing left in its middle part. In this form, the temple became completely useless to anyone, and its looting began.

IN early XIX century, with the permission of the authorities, an English diplomat exported to England a huge collection of magnificent ancient Greek statues, sculptural compositions, and fragments of walls with carvings.

They became interested in the fate of the building only when Greece gained independence. Since the 20s of the 20th century, work began on the restoration of the temple, which continues to this day, and the lost parts are being collected bit by bit. In addition, the Greek government is working to return the exported fragments to the country.

As for the most important value of the Parthenon - the statue of the goddess Athena by the brilliant Phidias, it was lost irretrievably during one of the fires. All that remains are its numerous copies, stored in various museums. The Roman marble copy of Athena Varvakion is considered the most accurate and reliable of the surviving ones.

Of course, there is no hope that the temple will ever appear in its original form, but even in its current state it is a real masterpiece of architecture.