Philosophy differs from science in that. How does philosophy differ from science?

Prokaryotic organisms include bacteria - primarily bacteria in the traditional sense of the term, then blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and recently discovered green algae-like organisms (chloroxybacteria), as well as some multicellular organisms such as actinobacteria (actinomycetes) and fruit-forming myxobacteria bodies.

All these are microbes. The name "prokaryotes" comes from the Greek words pro (before) and karyon (seed, nucleus). Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells. A prokaryotic structure that carries genes, sometimes incorrectly called bacterial chromosome, should be called genophore. It is a circular strand of DNA that is not found in the nucleus surrounded by a membrane; in an electron microscope, the genophore looks like a relatively transparent area, which is called nucleoid. In a eukaryotic cell, gene carriers are chromosomes located in the nucleus, bounded by a membrane. In exceptionally thin, transparent preparations, living chromosomes can be seen using a light microscope; more often they are studied in fixed and stained cells (in contrast to the genophore of prokaryotes, chromosomes are stained red with Feulgen’s reagent). Chromosomes are built from DNA, which is in complex with five histone proteins, rich in arginine and lysine and constituting a significant part of the chromosome mass in most eukaryotes (more than half). Histones give chromosomes a number of characteristic properties - elasticity, compact folding, and colorability. However, they are not involved in the ability of chromosomes to move, for which the mitotic spindle or similar microtubule systems are responsible.

All widely known organisms - algae, protozoa, molds, higher fungi, animals and plants - consist of eukaryotic cells. The cells of these organisms (with the exception of some protoctists) divide by mitosis - the so-called indirect division, in which the chromosomes “split” longitudinally and disperse in two groups to opposite poles of the cell. The word mitosis in this book will be used in the classical sense - only when we're talking about about chromosomes and the mitotic apparatus; this concept does not include the exact direct distribution of genes that make up the linkage group (genophore) in bacteria. Prokaryotic cells can divide by constriction into equal parts or by budding into unequal parts, but they never divide by mitosis.

Prokaryotes usually reproduce asexually. In many of them, the sexual process is completely unknown and the offspring have only one parent (in this book, sexual reproduction is defined as any process in which each offspring has more than one parent - usually two). In prokaryotes capable of sexual reproduction, the reproductive systems are unidirectional in the sense that donor cells (“male”) pass on their genes to recipient cells (“female”). The number of genes transferred varies from one conjugation to another: the genes form a long DNA molecule, and usually only a small part of the genome is transferred (but sometimes almost the entire genome). During the conjugation of bacteria, the fusion of the cytoplasm of the cells does not occur, as happens in all animals, in fungi (during the fusion of hyphae) and in many plants and protoctists. The new prokaryotic organism, called a recombinant, consists of the recipient cell itself, in which some genes have been replaced with genes from the donor. Thus, in prokaryotes, parents almost never contribute equally. On the other hand, in a sexually generated eukaryotic cell (zygote), the parental contributions are equal or nearly equal: the new eukaryotic individual typically receives half its genes and some nucleoplasm and cytoplasm from each parent.

Chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins, but preparations of isolated chromosomes often also contain a significant admixture of RNA from other regions of the nucleus. This RNA, probably both messenger and ribosomal, easily adheres to isolated chromosomes. The eukaryotic nucleus also contains nucleoli, consisting of the precursors of cytoplasmic ribosomes - RNA chains of various lengths and large number proteins. Other organelles unique to eukaryotic cells are mitochondria, plastids, centrioles, and kinetosomes with their undulipodia. With the exception of microtubules, which are found both inside and outside the nucleus, all of these organelles lie outside the nuclear membrane.

All motor organelles of a eukaryotic cell are about 0.25 µm thick; Of these, the longer ones (from 10 to 15 µm) and present in small numbers in each cell are traditionally called flagella, and the shorter and more numerous ones are called cilia. Electron microscopy revealed a striking structural similarity of all eukaryotic cilia and flagella: in a cross section, in all cases one can see the same arrangement of protein microtubules (9 + 2), each of which has a diameter of about 0.024 μm. These organelles are much more complex than bacterial flagella and have a completely different structure and protein composition. It's time for their names to reflect new information; therefore, in our book for cilia, flagella and related organelles of eukaryotes (for example, for the axial filament in the tail of the sperm, for the structural units of the cirrus in ciliates and other structures of the 9 + 2 type and their derivatives, developing from kinetosomes, which themselves have in cross section structure 9 + 0) the term undulipodium is used. The name flagellum is reserved for thin bacterial flagella and structures homologous to them, such as the axial fibrils of spirochetes; usually the flagella are too small to be seen with a conventional light microscope. This less ambiguous terminology is based on the considerations of T. Yang and his colleagues.

Commonly known prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Identifying the essence of philosophy as part of the spiritual culture of society must begin with the etymology of the word. As you know, the word “philosophy” comes from 2 Greek words “philo” - love, “sophia” - wisdom, thus it means “philosophy”, “love of wisdom”.

Assignment to students: What is philosophy? Is philosophy a science?

There are two points of view on this problem:

1. Philosophy is a science. K. Marx: “Philosophy is the science of the most general laws of the development of the world, i.e. nature, society and man." And this philosophy really presented itself as a science, it laid claim to the final and strict scientific explanation everything that exists and happens in the world.

This position is also shared by some modern philosophers; from their point of view, philosophy is a system of evidence; it deals with the knowledge of the world.

2. Philosophy is not a science, since the subject of philosophy cannot be the world, philosophy is a way of human self-knowledge; not the world, but the attitude towards it is the subject of philosophy, and, therefore, this is not science.

This dispute has existed since antiquity.

1st point of view developed Milesian school, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, then Bacon, Diderot, Helvetius, Hegel, Marx, etc.

The 2nd point of view was developed by the Socratic school: Socrates, the Stoics, Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, existentialists, Berdyaev (see “Philosophy of Creativity”)

Who is right? Both are right.

How does philosophy differ from science?

1. Philosophy - self-knowledge, reflection (and reflection is self-knowledge; consciousness directed at oneself). And since the world of man is the world of culture, philosophy can be defined as a reflection of culture on itself or as a reflection of culture clothed in a theoretical form. (K. Marx: “Philosophy - living soul culture.")

2. Philosophy can rely on scientific data, generalize and use them to one degree or another, therefore important element philosophy is knowledge. But there is always something in it that cannot be included in science. It explores a person's relationship to the world, expressed in values; studies a person’s knowledge of the world, included in the system of personal meanings. And this personal meaning is always unique, unique.

3. Philosophy is close to art (see N.A. Berdyaev)

What they have in common:

1). The personal nature of the perception of the world (which is not in science);

2). The nature of continuity (each work is unique, there are no more true or more false; in science, one knowledge excludes or includes another);

3). Critical attitude towards the world. Art reaches its heights when it resents the world rather than admires it.

The difference is in the methods of mastering reality: philosophy is a conceptual-categorical way of mastering the world; art is figurative.

Philosophy is close to religion.

1). The nature of the issue (worldview, life meaning);

2). It includes not only knowledge, but also faith.

4. The truth of science is known by reason - through rational, logical thinking. The truth of philosophy is cognized by reason, which includes the rational and the non-rational, the logical and the non-logical, the general and the individual. Philosophy strives to cognize the truth in its human, cultural dimension. It contains 2 dimensions:

a) logical, rational, rational, requiring proof and a clear correlation between words and deeds:

b) spiritual and moral, strictly human.

5. Philosophical knowledge does not have an applied nature; the goals of philosophy cannot be reduced to service goals. Philosophy shapes the type of consciousness, worldview; its problems are of a universal, eternal nature. Philosophy has always been a life teaching, a spiritual guiding force.

Philosophy strives to rise above natural dependence, to reflect on the meaning of existence.

The multifunctional nature of philosophy is manifested in the variety of connections between philosophy and life, science, and social practice.

In relation to science it performs methodological function as a theory and method of cognition. (Theory is the sum and system of knowledge about a subject; method is the way of applying them to obtain new ones)

In relation to art and morality, philosophy fulfills axiological function and cultural and educational.

In relation to social practice - indicative.

2. Philosophy of education: essence and objectives.

From the very beginning, philosophy sought not only to comprehend existing education systems, but also to formulate new values ​​and ideals of education. In this regard, it is necessary to recall the names of Plato, Aristotle, J.J. Rousseau, to whom humanity owes the awareness of the cultural and historical value of education. German philosophy XIX century in the person of I. Kant, F. Schleiermacher, Hegel, Humboldt, she put forward the idea of ​​humanistic education of the individual and proposed ways to reform the system of school and university education. In the 20th century major philosophers not only thought about the problems of education, but also tried to create projects for new educational institutions.

However, although problems of education have always occupied important place V philosophical concepts, the identification of philosophy of education as a special research direction began only in the 20th century - in the early 40s. a society was created at Columbia University (USA), the purpose of which was to research philosophical problems education, creation of training programs in the philosophy of education in colleges and universities, personnel in this specialty; philosophical examination of educational programs. Philosophy of education now occupies an important place in the teaching of philosophy in all Western European countries.

Russia has long had significant philosophical traditions in the analysis of educational problems, however, until recently, philosophy of education was neither a special research area nor a specialty. Nowadays, the situation has begun to change. A Problem-Based Scientific Council was created under the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Education, a seminar on the philosophy of education began at the Institute of Pedagogical Innovations of the Russian Academy of Education, and the first monographs and teaching aids were published.

However, among representatives of various philosophical directions There is still no single point of view on the content and tasks of the philosophy of education.

· Karakovsky V.A., director. school No. 825 of Moscow defines the philosophy of education as a branch of modern philosophy;

· Kraevsky G.N., acad. RAO, defines the philosophy of education as an eclectic field of application of certain philosophical knowledge, problems and categories to pedagogical reality. (= educational philosophy, applied philosophy)

Philosophy of education, based on the above reasoning, can be defined as philosophical reflection on the problems of education.

What is the reason for the surge in philosophical issues in education?

First of all, with development trends modern education in the country and the world. What are these trends?

1. World trend to a change in the basic paradigm of education; crisis classic model and education systems, development of fundamental pedagogical ideas in philosophy and sociology of education, in the humanities; creation of experimental and alternative schools;

2. the movement of domestic schools and education towards integration into world culture: democratization of the school, creation of a system of continuous education, humanization, humanitarization, computerization of education, free choice of training and education programs, creation of a school community based on the independence of schools and universities;

3. ideological, ideological and value vacuum in the education system, which arose in connection with the collapse of the totalitarian-ideological control of this system and associated with this phenomenon - ambiguity, uncertainty of the goals of training and education.

These trends in the development of modern education determine the main tasks of the philosophy of education:

1. understanding the crisis of education, the crisis of its traditional forms, the exhaustion of the main pedagogical paradigm; understanding the ways and means of resolving this crisis.

Philosophy of education discusses the ultimate foundations of education and pedagogy:

• the place and meaning of education in culture,
• understanding of man and the ideal of education,
• meaning and features of pedagogical activity.

2. Understanding new and alternative pedagogical experience, discussing the images of the new school; justification of state and regional policies in the field of education, formulation of educational goals, conceptual design of educational systems, forecasting of education (search and normative);

3. identification of initial cultural values ​​and fundamental ideological attitudes of education and upbringing that correspond to the requirements that are objectively put forward to the individual in the conditions of modern society.

Thus, the incentives for the development of philosophy of education are specific problems of pedagogy and psychology, program and design developments in the education system.

The similarities and differences between science and philosophy have always attracted people's attention. So different, but talking about the same thing. Such eternal and seemingly familiar things as time, space and distance can be viewed from completely different angles. We will talk about what brings philosophy and science together in the material of the article.

How and where philosophy was born

Philosophy as a science was born more than two and a half thousand years ago in countries such as Egypt, China, India and Ancient Greece.

Definition of philosophy

Before looking for similarities and differences between philosophy and science, let's consider each concept separately. In Greek, “philosophy” means the love of wisdom, and this definition perfectly captures the essence of the concept.

Who was the first?

Every science has its discoverers, and philosophy is no exception. The first person to classify himself as a philosopher was Pythagoras. And Plato introduced it into a separate discipline.

Science is...

Despite the similarities and differences between philosophy and science, the very definition of what is scientific activity, formed on the basis philosophical knowledge, which states that science is one of the forms of human spiritual activity, aimed at understanding the laws of the universe, nature and society. No discoveries would have been made if humanity had not encountered philosophical questions and the desire to find answers to them.

In addition, the term “science” carries several meanings:

1. The community of scientists and the entire collection of universities and scientific institutions.
2. A body of reliable knowledge about a person and society as a whole.
3. Science as a process of obtaining information and knowledge.

Characteristics of science

Science has its own set of characteristics, including:

• studying specific subject reality;
• obtaining reliable knowledge or a specific result;
• operating with local concepts;
• empirical and theoretical knowledge;
• realization of values.

Main characteristics of philosophy as a scientific discipline

Philosophy has the following characteristics:

• teaches you to think in general categories;
• forms values ​​that are important for each person individually;
• recognizes the existence of a common reality, the same for everyone. Unites people into one big family, without states, nationalities and territories, meaning primarily the spiritual essence, and not the physical appearance;
• The goal of philosophy is a formed worldview.

Religion and philosophy

Let us now understand what is the difference between such concepts as “religion” and “philosophy” that are so close at first glance.

The concept of philosophy is much broader than religion. Religion is confidence in the existence of God as the creator of the world, deep respect for him and adherence to certain canons prescribed in holy books("Bible", "Koran"). Hegel placed religion very close to philosophy and art.

Faith and religious consciousness take over the mind and logical thinking. Religion is characterized by the absence of any flexibility of thinking, dogmatism and conservatism in judgment. Today, three world religions are official - Buddhism, Christianity (this includes Catholics, Protestants and Orthodox Christians) and Islam. Buddhism is considered the oldest of all religions.

Philosophy and science

What is the relationship between philosophy and science? These are two completely different shapes knowledge of the world, independent, but complementary. The relationship between philosophy and science is expressed not only in the search for similarities and differences. One cannot exist without the other.

So, philosophy is statements with which an individual person agrees, the totality of his general views on the world. Science helps improve philosophy through new discoveries and supplements it with facts to substantiate a particular theory. The history of the development of science knows many examples of this fact. For example, it was previously believed that the Earth was flat, but as a result of discoveries made by science, it was possible to establish that our planet is spherical. This discovery refuted one philosophical worldview on the structure of the world and gave rise to new options. The same applies to natural phenomena when a flood, earthquake or thunderstorm was perceived solely as the wrath of the gods. Over time, science has learned not only to predict weather conditions, but also to largely control them.

The history of the development of science would be incomplete without philosophy. It performs the following functions:

• creates new subject areas for discoveries in science;
• forms and explains ideas and principles, eliminates emerging contradictions;
• leads to an understanding of the result obtained;
• systematizes the acquired scientific knowledge, helping disciplines determine their place in the knowledge of the picture of the world as a whole, establishes contacts and interaction not only with sciences, but also with people.

The relationship between philosophy and the sciences

The connection between philosophy and humanities much stronger than one might think at first glance, and is characterized by the fact that several scientific disciplines emerged from it, including:

• logic is the science that studies correct thinking;
• axiology is a science that studies values;
• ethics - the study of behavior;
• aesthetics - the science of beauty;
• anthropology is a discipline about man;
• epistemology - studies the theory of knowledge;
• ontology - studies being.

Scientific definition of time

Time in science and philosophy is perceived differently. Since ancient times, all great minds have wondered what it is.

Science puts forward several definitions of the concept of time, based on its characteristics:

• Time is a quantity whose values ​​depend on units of measurement.
• With the help of time periods, people establish intervals between events that happened in life.
• Time is a parameter that describes the relationship between several processes.
• The time scale can be uniform or uneven.
• Time always moves towards the future.

Units of time in science

1. One for the whole planet - the Greenwich system.
2. Belt - includes 24 hours.
3. True time, measured by sundials installed at different points on the Earth.
4. Solar - averaged over a certain area.
5. Stellar - it is used in astronomy.
6. Daylight saving time - the clocks are changed to save energy resources.

Man divides time into intervals for description specific events your life, but this division is relative. The present is a moment in time that immediately becomes the past.

Physics defined time in its own way, and this definition became fundamental in the creation of watches: time is a reversible quantity of the movement of objects, which is measured by a sequence of events.

Some concepts of time

• Classical physics states that time is a continuous quantity from the point of view of quantum theory. It is paramount and indefinable. Time is a mandatory parameter for any process. It is the same for everything that happens in the world, anywhere on the planet. Despite the acceleration or deceleration of some physical processes, time flows evenly and nothing can affect its course.
• Quantum mechanics also recognizes the irreversibility of time, but states that it flows unevenly. According to it, the measurement will provide information about the state the object was in in the past, but another, new state will appear in the future.
• Einstein put forward his theory, which is still popular today. Of greatest interest is the fact that time and space are not independent. So, near massive objects, space can be distorted, and time can slow down.

Table "Philosophy and Science"

Philosophy is based mainly on a person’s internal sensations, his feelings and experiences. Science recognizes specificity and calculation. The similarities and differences between science and philosophy are presented in the table.

Philosophy today

What questions does philosophy solve today? In connection with the development of man as an individual, some issues that were important, say, about 100 years ago, have gone away by themselves today. Central questions of philosophy today:

1. Is a person the creator of his life at the deepest level? This is not just decision-making, as it was before, but a matter of shaping all events within the individual world of each person.
2. The relationship between people as a single organism, even those who do not suspect each other’s existence. From this point of view, each person is perceived as a cell human body- our planet. Each cell does its own job, but at the same time it is a small part of a large whole organism.
3. Is there the existence of an intelligent Universe or a creator God, and in what direction is development going?
4. Eternal questions of good and evil. Some philosophical works(such as Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita") touch on the topic more deeply than is customary in fairy tales and myths. The hero of the work, Yeshua, before his crucifixion, claims that there are no people who are evil, because everyone fulfills his task in this world.
5. Search for the truth and personal path of each person. Today, philosophy urges a person not to follow the lead of marketers, psychologists, magicians and sorcerers. Spiritual leaders such as Osho encourage a person to trust his own life and all the processes taking place in it, to find peace within himself. Modern philosophy says that all the answers that a person tries to find, all the feelings that he wants to find in other people, are within himself. And his task is to discover within himself a source of strength and wisdom that will allow him to be happy without becoming attached to people, things, countries and circumstances.
6. Some topics in philosophy and science overlap, despite the difference in methods: both philosophers and scientists today are trying to unravel the mystery of the brain and its relationship with the body. A science such as psychosomatics claims that medicine can move far forward if, instead of fighting the disease with antibiotics, vaccines and injections, it finds the root cause of its occurrence within human consciousness. It is known that a person’s acute reluctance to live leads to diseases such as AIDS. Back problems explain a person’s lack of confidence in himself, his own attractiveness and wealth.

Philosophy in culture

Despite all the differences and similarities between philosophy and science, it has a special role in society. The cultural function of philosophy is that, spreading in the form of certain knowledge, it creates conditions for a better understanding of the world around us, helps to form new ideas, uniting not only the society of a particular region, but also of several countries among themselves.

Esoterics - the science of the future

Esoterics is a science that studies supernatural phenomena that man is not yet able to explain either from the point of view of philosophy or from the point of view of official science. This may include prophetic dreams, conversations with deceased relatives, a feeling of deja vu and many other inexplicable, but interesting phenomena for humanity.

Einstein claimed that studying physics helped him understand and believe in the existence of God. This statement proves that philosophy and other sciences are closely related. Also, the famous scientist believed that a person can get any reality he wants by tuning into a certain frequency. Since everything in the world consists of energy, it is enough for a person to simply begin to radiate into space those sensations, thoughts and emotions that he wants to receive.

Nikola Tesla, an outstanding physicist, argued that the highest point in the development of human consciousness is the embodiment of the reality that a person can imagine mentally.

We hope that the presented material helped to more clearly trace how philosophy and other sciences interact with each other, and also helped to expand the horizons of perception of things that are familiar at first glance.

Philosophy is a special, independent field of scientific knowledge.

It differs from special sciences in special ways: a) subject and b) methods studies of reality, the main feature of which is the extreme universality And versatility.

Private(so-called concrete) sciences are studied separate spheres of reality and corresponding to them private laws using appropriate private research methods (for example, experiment).

For example:

Mechanics – mechanical (causes of collision of bodies and their consequences)

Economics – for example, inflation problems ( reasons for the emergence of inflation, i.e. depreciation of money due to excess money supply in circulation). Inflation in astronomy (celestial bodies)?

- physics – physical laws

- astronomy – laws of rotation of celestial bodies in star systems.

Philosophy, unlike special sciences, explores the world in its totality (integrity and interconnection) and opens (formulates) universal (universal) laws, categories, methods of cognition, the action of which is manifested in all or most spheres of reality:

For example:

1. Philosophical laws: the law of “transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones” (formulated by Hegel). It states that the transition of any phenomenon from an old quality to a new quality is certainly carried out through certainquantitative changes.

For example: 1. Water turns into steam when the temperature increases to 100 degrees. 2. You can become a specialist only when you have mastered a certain amount of material. Etc.

2. Philosophical categories (main concepts of sciences): quality, quantity, cause, effect, etc. are also used in any sciences (as opposed to categories private sciences: goods, money, energy, etc.).

3. Philosophical methods of cognition: dialectics, induction, deduction, etc. are also universal.

A) Subjects of private sciences -separate sides of reality, the subject of philosophy -universal : world and man in their unity.

B) Without using empirical methods of knowledge of particular sciences, philosophy solves its problems with the helptheoretical thinking, opensuniversal patterns, developsuniversal methods of cognition, a system of categories that haveuniversal significance for all sciences (for example, cause and effect, general and individual, necessity and chance, etc.)

2. Mutual influence of philosophy and special sciences

A. Philosophy gives private sciences:

A universal picture of the world in its totality;

Universal laws, categories, methods of studying reality;

Value orientations of human behavior (for example, understanding of the unity of nature and man, understanding nature as a partner, and not just as a means to enrichment).

B. Private sciences give philosophy:

specific scientific data (facts), private laws different areas reality. Based on them, philosophy makes generalizations, formulates general scientific laws, categories, methods of cognition.

Based on the integration of this knowledge, philosophy builds a universal picture of the world. Privately scientific knowledge connect philosophy with concrete reality.