In what year did the 19th century end? See what "X century" is in other dictionaries
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Probably, this gift, characteristic of a Russian person, to some extent hindered the free development of fine arts, and Russia did not give the world artists like Leonardo da Vinci or Rembrandt. Russian artists had enough talent, but they lacked the dispassionateness, the super-ethical admiration of color and pattern, to focus on their own pictorial techniques. They could capture and capture in their paintings a moment, like the Dutchman F. Hals, or expose the vices of society, teaching the viewer like the Englishman W. Hogarth. Russian artists perfectly reflected the obvious problems of a particular class and could not express the eternal, as Rembrandt did. However, they also did not bother to deal with the actual problems of painting, like Vermeer or the French Impressionists.
However, to call Russian culture only literary-centric would not be entirely accurate. Russia has made a breakthrough in another area of art - in music. Probably, this is also connected with Russian passion, with the desire for empathy, with the exclusive preference for temporary art forms over spatial ones. Russian music entered the world stage and played a truly revolutionary role in European culture of the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries.
In culture Ancient Russia music, as well as literature, played a supporting role. New time - the era of the triumphal procession of music in Europe. For the first time, musical works appeared that became on a par with ingenious sculptures, paintings and dramatic works. The development of means of musical expression finally gave composers the opportunity to create works that are as strong in depth as emotional and philosophical richness as ancient Greek tragedies. The cultural processes taking place in Europe in the 17th-19th centuries contributed to the emergence of a need for music as a specific form of art.
Russian music reached professionalism in the 19th century. Even if only M. Mussorgsky and P. Tchaikovsky worked in Russia, she would be among the first on the world musical arena. The 19th century can be called the "golden age" of Russian music. Like Renaissance Florence, which gave the world dozens of great artists and sculptors, Russia in the 19th century became a forge of brilliant musicians. M. Glinka is rightfully considered the founder of Russian classical music. He was also the first to bring Russian professional music to the European stage. His ingenious melodic gift is not inferior to the best representatives of Italy. At the same time, he relies on the features of Russian melody, national musical creativity in general, using formative and structural achievements. Western Europe. However, his beautiful, classically built music is not yet characterized by bottomless drama, that embodiment of the fatal tragedy of human existence, which distinguished classical ancient Greek tragedies, Shakespeare's plays or Michelangelo's creations. A powerful existential breakthrough in Russian music will be made by the composers of the so-called "Mighty Handful".
Of course, in order to embody a grandiose idea and express these strong and multifaceted feelings, new means of expression were needed. M. Mussorgsky became a composer who made a revolution in the field of musical language. His desire to bring the musical intonation closer to the intonation of human speech, and the speech is emotionally saturated, reflecting the entire depth of experiences, turned out to be passionate, unexpected and convincing in Russian. It is no coincidence that many French composers of the early twentieth century, striving for reforms in the musical language, considered themselves his students. His romances, unlike the romances of M. Glinka, are not distinguished by exquisite melody, but they amaze with the power of emotional and philosophical impact. One of their main themes, so beloved by Russian literature and art of the 19th century, is the theme of the “little man”. The innovation of Mussorgsky's romances was the penetration through the means of musical expression into the very depths of human existence within the framework of the chamber genre. This was largely facilitated by Mussorgsky's ability to show suffering and aspirations through a tiny episode, with the help of only a human voice and piano. human soul. Through this inner life of a small person, the composer, like F. Dostoevsky, comes to the ethical problems of good and evil, love and hate, life and death. In this sense, M. Mussorgsky is an exclusively Russian national composer who managed to embody in music the national craving for suffering and compassion.
Mussorgsky turned to the most complex historical drama by A. Pushkin "Boris Godunov". In the opera of the same name, he revealed the ambiguous image of Tsar Boris, showed the tragic worldview of the people. With the help of innovative musical techniques, he managed to recreate the folk drama. Mussorgsky's musical language is also interesting in that it requires the rejection of the classical European opera style of singing. For the performance of Mussorgsky's opera parts, a special manner of singing is needed, capable of conveying the drama of his images, and requiring from the singer the extraordinary talents of a dramatic actor. F. Chaliapin became the best performer of the part of Boris.
P. Tchaikovsky, like Mussorgsky, who preferred "Russian" subjects, unlike the latter, did not seek to reform the musical language. The formula of most of his works was one of the oldest musical elements - the sequence. But on the basis of this repetitive element, he created musical compositions that are amazing in terms of emotional impact, and at the same time extremely accessible for perception. The work of P. Tchaikovsky is a rare phenomenon mass culture, corresponding with all its accessibility to the strictest standards of high art. His works have become a national phenomenon. Tchaikovsky in his operatic work also turned to the works of A. Pushkin. But, unlike Mussorgsky, he revealed in music the problems of the 19th century. The theme of love is central to his work. The image of the hero of his time, Onegin, and the image of Herman, thirsty for wealth, are shown by Tchaikovsky in vivid interaction with the images of the selfless Russian women Tatiana and Lisa.
He contemplated the burning Ishmael
1854 ( Crimean War)
And finally, 1914
Repost.
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Anti-Russian propaganda from the 15th to early XIX century
Since the invention of printing, the circle of people familiar with the printed word has rapidly expanded, and by the end of the 15th century, books had gone beyond the narrow circle of the humanistic intelligentsia and learned theologians.
It was then that the concept of "information warfare", without being formalized in a clear terminology, acquired forms that are quite recognizable to us in the 21st century. Along with the Bible and solid scientific treatises, at the beginning of the 16th century, flying sheets appeared, containing 4-8 pages of text in large print, often accompanied by primitive woodcuts - in fact, the “yellow press” of those years. It was then that among these predecessors of newspapers, the Russian theme first appeared. In 1514 in another Russian-Lithuanian war, the Russians suffered a serious defeat in the battle of Orsha. True, it did not affect the outcome of the war, but Polish diplomacy and propaganda hastened to present it as a historical event, signifying a turning point in the struggle of the Lithuanian-Polish community with "heretics and schismatic Muscovites." According to contemporary Polish historian and diplomat Hieronymus Gral, "with the help of" Orsha propaganda "we turned part of Europe against Muscovy."
Already then - at the beginning of the 16th century - the Dutchman Albert Kampensky, at that time the papal chamberlain under Clement VII, frankly warned the pope that “Nothing good can be expected from the King of Poland, a prudent and very pious sovereign, nevertheless, nothing good can be expected in the case concerning the Muscovites,” for, “under the pretext of waging war against the schismatics ... he enjoyed the tremendous favor of other Christian sovereigns, fighting, as it were, for the faith and religion, and great help from our side, since, for the sake of this, promulgating indulgences everywhere, we often supported him from the general Christian treasury.
Therefore, the Poles tried not to let ambassadors and merchants into Moscow, and put pressure on Livonia so that it would not let them through either. At the same time, they sought, if possible, to monopolize information about the "Muscovites" in their hands. No wonder Matvey Mekhovsky, a prominent Polish scientist, in the preface to the treatise "On Two Sarmatians", wrote about the lands of Muscovy, as "discovered by the troops of the King of Poland" and now known to the world. "Orsha propaganda" and the scientific work of Mekhovsky strengthened the hostile attitude towards schismatics that had been formed for centuries. The image of the schismatic enemy began to take on more concrete contours. But seriously, the Europeans began to form ideas about Russia as a country of cruel, aggressive barbarians, slavishly submissive to their tyrants, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
In January 1558, Ivan IV Vasilievich began the Livonian War for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. And in 1561. A sheet appeared with the following text: “Very vile, terrible, hitherto unheard of, true new news, what atrocities the Muscovites are committing with captive Christians from Livonia, men and women, virgins and children, and what harm they are doing to them daily in their country. Along the way, it is shown what is the great danger and need of the Livlanders. To all Christians, as a warning and improvement of their sinful life, it was written from Livonia and printed. Nuremberg 1561". The messages of the "yellow press" were reinforced artistically.
This new type of information source aimed at the general public has changed the selection of information and the way it is presented. As in today's tabloid press, shocking, terrible news is selected and presented in a way that affects the senses, and does not give an objective picture. Certain stamps are quickly formed. Directly or indirectly, Russians were represented through the negative images of the Old Testament. The salvation of Livonia was compared with the deliverance of Israel from the pharaoh, and Ivan the Terrible was compared with the pharaoh, Nebuchadnezzar and Herod. He was unequivocally defined as a tyrant. It was then that the word "tyrant" became a household word for the definition of all the rulers of Russia in principle. The authors of the news about Grozny's campaigns directly "borrowed" the descriptions of the Turkish conquests. The Elector of Saxony August I became the author of the famous maxim, the meaning of which was that the Russian danger is comparable only to the Turkish one. Ivan the Terrible was portrayed in the dress of the Turkish Sultan. They wrote about his harem of 50 wives. Moreover, he allegedly killed those who were bored. Apparently, this is where the persistent desire of modern pro-Western historiography to “count” the real Ivan the Terrible as many wives as possible comes from.
During the 16th century, A. Kappeler, a researcher of printed news about Russia of Ivan the Terrible, discovered 62 flyers dedicated to Russia. The vast majority of them are devoted to the Livonian War, and in all the Russians and their king were portrayed in the same gloomy colors as the above. It was then that the first field printing house in the history of the Polish army appeared, the head of which, with the plebeian surname Lapka, later received the dignity of the gentry and the noble surname "Lapchinsky". Polish propaganda worked in several languages and in several directions throughout Europe. And she did it effectively.
It is clear that objectivity in the assessments was not even a goal. In the same era that Grozny lived, Henry VIII of England executed his chancellors one by one. In 1553, when the first English ship reached the area of the future Arkhangelsk, the Catholic Mary, nicknamed Bloody, became the British Queen. She ruled for only five years, but during this time only 287 people were burned, including several bishops of the Anglican Church. Many died in the dungeons and were executed in other ways. Nevertheless, the "European" reputation of England did not suffer significantly. What was important was not the objective cruelty of this or that ruler, but, so to speak, the recognition system "friend or foe."
In 1570, the Duke of Alba, at the Frankfurt deputation stage, expressed the idea not to send artillery to Muscovy, so that it would not become an enemy. "terrible not only for the empire, but for the entire West." The same Duke of Alba, who, after being appointed viceroy of Charles V in the Netherlands, established a court that sent 1800 people to the scaffold within three months of 1567, and after a new offensive of Protestants from Germany, in next year, several thousand people became victims of the new massacre, hundreds of thousands of people fled abroad. But Spain, nevertheless, does not threaten "the whole West", but Russia allegedly threatens.
In 1578, surrounded by the Count of Alsace, a “plan for turning Muscovy into an imperial province” arose, the author of which was the former guardsman who fled to the west, Heinrich Staden. A sort of "Vlasov" of the 16th century ... This project was reported to the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the Duke of Prussia, the Swedish and Polish kings. Similar plans were prepared by the English captain Chamberlain. These plans converged on one thing - in the desire to permanently eliminate Russia as a subject of European politics. Here is what Staden wrote: “One of the emperor's brothers will govern the new imperial province of Russia. In the occupied territories, power should belong to the imperial commissars, whose main task will be to provide the German troops with everything necessary at the expense of the population. To do this, it is necessary to assign peasants and merchants to each fortification - for twenty or ten miles around - so that they pay salaries to military people and deliver everything necessary ... "
It was proposed to make Russian prisoners, driving them to castles and cities. From there they can be put to work, “... but not otherwise than in iron shackles, filled with lead at the feet ...”. There is also an ideological and religious justification for the robbery: “Stone German churches should be built throughout the country, and Muscovites should be allowed to build wooden ones. They will soon rot and only German stone ones will remain in Russia. Thus, a change of religion will occur painlessly and naturally for the Muscovites. When the Russian land, together with the surrounding countries, which have no sovereigns and which lie empty, is taken, then the borders of the empire will converge with the borders of the Persian Shah ... ". Before the Nazi plan "Ost" there were still 360 years ...
To justify potential aggression or other hostile actions, not only the foreign policy aggressiveness of the Muscovites, but also the tyranny of their tsar against his own subjects was mythologized and promoted. I must say that in Europe itself, everything was unfavorable with this. In 1572, a messenger from Maximilian II Magnus Pauli informs Ivan IV about the Bartholomew night. To which compassionate Ivan the Terrible replied that “Grieves for the bloodshed that was committed by the French king in his kingdom, several thousand were beaten to mere babies, and it is more fitting to mourn by the peasant sovereign that the French king committed such inhumanity over so many people and shed so much blood without a mind”. As a result, the French king is a scoundrel, but France is a cultured country, despite the fact that the example of Charles was followed by Catholics in many French provinces.
Of course, it was impossible for France and England to set records for the brutal extermination of their subjects, and therefore Jerome Horsey in his Notes on Russia indicates that the guardsmen slaughtered seven hundred thousand (!) People in Novgorod. The fact that 40 thousand people lived in it, and an epidemic was raging, and, moreover, the lists of the dead that are completely preserved in the synodics, they call 2800 dead, does not bother anyone. These are the laws of the "black PR" genre.
Let us also note that the plot of the "tyrannical atrocities of Ivan the Terrible" survived the centuries. The Livonian region has long ended and the Poles, not without success, are trying to seize the primordially Moscow lands in the 17th century ... and another engraving appears "Ivan the Terrible executes Johann Boye, the governor of Weizenstein."
At the end of the reign of Peter I in Germany, the book "Conversations in the Kingdom of the Dead" was published with allegorical pictures of Ivan the Terrible's executions of his enemies. There, by the way, for the first time the Russian sovereign is depicted in the form of a bear.
The finishing touch was the spread of the legend about the murder of Ivan the Terrible's own son. Note that this version is not reflected in any Russian sources. Everywhere, including Grozny's personal correspondence, Ivan Ivanovich's rather long illness is spoken of. The version of the murder was voiced by the papal legate Jesuit Antonio Possevino, the already mentioned Heinrich Staden, the Englishman Jerome Horsey and other foreigners who were not direct witnesses to the death of the prince. Karamzin and subsequent Russian historians wrote based on their material. It is interesting that, according to A.A. Sevastyanov, the author of the translation of Horsey’s Notes, in the margins of Horsey’s manuscript, but not by his hand, near the words “gave him a slap in the face” there is a postscript made by some mysterious editor, which remained in the text forever and in radically changing the version of the death of the prince set forth by Horsey: "Thrust at him with his piked staff", i.e. "thrown at him with his sharp staff."
Thus, in the West, the “necessary” version of the history of Russia was created, regardless of how events actually developed. The version of the murder, as well as the version of incredible atrocities, was properly rendered. We see the completion of this process today - the cover of the textbook "History of the Fatherland" grade 10, edited by Yakemenko.
Why, then, in the anti-Russian information war is such attention paid to Grozny? Without setting a goal to whitewash this undoubtedly complex figure, I will nevertheless note that it was under him that Russia acquired borders close to today's, having annexed the Volga region and Siberia. These acquisitions can be challenged, including through the denigration of the historical image of Ivan the Terrible. It is also important that in the Livonian War, Russia for the first time fought against the West as a coalition of states. According to the composition of the participants, this war is an all-European war. The Muscovite kingdom of Ivan the Terrible was at the peak of military and economic power and it took the efforts of half of Europe to keep it out of the seas. It was then that Europe faced a choice - to recognize the sovereign of Moscow as “ours”, and the conflict in the Baltic “ family business» among European monarchs (in this case Russia and Poland), or consider Russia as an alien civilization like Muslims. Europe has made its choice...
Now let's move on to the second hero - Emperor Paul I. He is akin to Ivan the Terrible in that his historical image is a model of another successful information campaign of the West against the Russian tsars. Moreover, under Ivan the Terrible, the degree of Westernization of Russia was not great, and the image of Grozny had to be distorted, placing the “necessary” assessments in hindsight. In the case of Pavel, the “black PR” company was carried out both for the Western and Russian audiences at the same time, accompanied by a complex of special operations that ultimately led to the physical elimination of Pavel by the conspirators on the night of March 11, 1801. We do not consider here the version that Ivan the Terrible was also eliminated with the help of European doctors, due to its unprovability. Although the content of sublimate, i.e. poisonous mercury chloride in the remains of the king and here is suggestive, and makes the analogies even more transparent ...
The reasons for the information war against Emperor Pavel Petrovich are the same as under Grozny. By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire for the first time reached the peak of power, allowing it to challenge all of continental Europe on an equal footing. Actually, later - in 1812-1814. - She did it successfully.
Already the end of the reign of Catherine II is characterized by a sharp deterioration in relations with Britain. This deterioration is very easy to trace by the use of a relatively new weapon of information warfare - caricatures. The destruction of the predatory Crimean Khanate, the strengthening of Russia in the Northern Black Sea region and the creation of the Black Sea Fleet, and then the brilliant victories of Admiral Ushakov at sea - all this alarmed England. In the spring of 1791, an acute international conflict flared up, which went down in history as the Ochakov Crisis. The British Navy dominated the Baltic Sea and had complete control over all Eastern European exports. The Black Sea gave Russia a detour to trade with Europe, which did not suit England. That is why on March 22, 1791, the British Cabinet of Ministers accepted an ultimatum from Russia at its meeting. If the latter refuses to return the Ochakov region to Turkey, then Great Britain and its allied Prussia threatened to declare war. Diplomatic pressure was accompanied by the creation of an appropriate image of Catherine and her entourage in the European press. On the cartoons we see a bear with the head of Catherine II and Prince G.A. Potemkin with a naked saber in his hand; together they successfully confront a group of British politicians. Behind the backs
politicians are two bishops, one of whom whispers an incredible prayer: "Deliver me, Lord, from Russian bears ...". Here, allusions to the well-known in the early Middle Ages prayer "Deliver me, Lord, from the wrath of the Normans ..." are quite understandable to the European reader.
Again, as in the days of Grozny, Russia is presented as barbarians threatening Europeans. Compared to the time of Grozny, we see a shift in the emphasis of the information war. The "Russian threat" is no longer equivalent to the Turkish one. She is much more.
It must be said that British pressure had some effect on St. Petersburg. Most of the members of the Russian government were inclined to meet the requirements of England. But Catherine II showed political firmness. Russian diplomacy
succeeded in raising the public opinion of the English nation against the war and forcing the British government to abandon its demands to Russia. It all ended not with humiliating concessions to European diplomats, as had already happened, but with the victorious Peace of Jassy, which finally established Russia in the Black Sea region and made it an arbiter in the relations between the Orthodox Balkan peoples and the Ottoman Empire. This was achieved thanks to the use of its weapons against the West - the manipulation of public opinion, including caricatures. The first real Russian political caricature is Gavriil Skorodumov's painting "The Balance of Europe in 1791", depicting large scales that tilted in the direction where the Suvorov grenadier stands on the bowl - "one and heavy" - outweighing all the enemies of Russia.
Catherine unambiguously hints how the "Ochakov question" will be resolved if England continues her policy. This language was well understood in England ... and retreated.
After the first defeat, the English propaganda machine started to work at full capacity. The "Russian atrocity" and our most famous commander, A.V. Suvorov, became the target. Fortunately, a reason was found quickly - the suppression of the Polish uprising. Propaganda "blanks" were used quite in the spirit of the Livonian War. A blow was struck at once on Catherine herself, the best Russian commander and the Russian people, who was presented in the form of "inhuman Cossacks." Classical battle paintings and caricature were also involved. In the first case, the Cossacks destroy civilians, in the second (caricature "Royal Fun"), Suvorov, who approached the throne (this is his first, but far from the last appearance in English cartoons), holds out the heads of Polish women and children to Catherine with the words: “So, my Royal Lady, I have fully fulfilled your affectionate maternal commission to the erring people of Poland, and have brought you the Gathering of Ten Thousand Heads, carefully separated from their erring bodies, on the day after the Surrender.” Behind Suvorov are three of his soldiers carrying baskets with the heads of unfortunate Poles.
The attack on Russia in general, and Suvorov in particular, in the "yellow press" reached its peak under Emperor Paul I, who pursued foreign policy, guided solely by the interests of Russia. The commander appeared before the European layman in the guise of a bloodthirsty devourer of enemy armies. A sort of ghoul-bloodsucker.
Note that these cartoons are dated 1799-1800. Those. the time when Russia is England's ALLY against revolutionary France! But by that time, geopolitical contradictions had reached such intensity that no one in England paid any attention to such “trifles”. Since that time in England there has been an anti-Suvorov tradition,
reflected, in particular, in the poems of Byron:
Suvorov on that day excelled
Timur and, perhaps, Genghis Khan:
He contemplated the burning Ishmael
And listened to the cries of the enemy camp ...
The latest characteristic note about Suvorov published in the English newspaper "The Times" dated January 26, 1818 contains the following characteristic: "All honors cannot wash away the shame of whimsical cruelty from his character and force the historian to paint his portrait in any other colors than those worthy of a successful crazy militarist or a clever savage." These views on the personality of Suvorov have been preserved in Western historical science to this day. This is one of the laws of information wars - a well-propagated myth is perceived as Truth by the children of its creators.
It must be said that at the end of the 18th century, England had a colossal propaganda machine that had never been seen before in the world. One way or another, dozens of newspapers and magazines worked for propaganda, as well as more than one and a half hundred cartoonists, and more than a hundred publishing houses that print these cartoons. Several dozen large engraving workshops worked around the clock, thousands of prints were exported to the continent every year. Satirical sheets came out daily and were bought up by all sections of English society. There were reprints and even pirated copies. Caricature became the most powerful weapon of the information war, perhaps the main one at that time.
As for Paul I, they immediately started talking about madness and the imminent overthrow of the tsar - even at the coronation on April 5, 1797. the English "predict": “An important event will soon take place in the Russian Empire. I dare not say more, but I am afraid of it ... ". This "prediction" coincided with Paul's refusal to send troops against France. He had the "impertinence" not to fight for interests far from the interests of Russia. The British had to make promises: a naval base in the Mediterranean in Malta, the division of spheres of influence in Europe, etc. Of course, at the end of the victorious campaigns of A.V. Suvorov, the British gentlemen, as they say, “threw” the Muscovites. But Paul, in response, defiantly went for an anti-British alliance with France, thereby anticipating by eight decades the thought of his great-grandson, Alexander III. That's when the intensity of anti-Pavlovian and anti-Russian hysteria in the English press reaches its limit. Pavel is called - "His Muscovite Majesty" - so to speak, greetings from the time of the Livonian War!
The central English newspapers already in January make informational stuffing about the impending overthrow of Paul: “We therefore expect to hear with the next mail that the generous Paul has ceased to rule!” or " Big changes, apparently, have already happened in the Russian government, or cannot but happen in the near future. There are dozens of such messages in January-February, they are invariably accompanied by an indication of the dementia of the emperor.
Well, really, who else could be a person who did to Britain the same way she did to all continental countries? The theme of an alliance with Napoleonic France, as deadly for Britain, provoked fierce attacks. For example, in one of the cartoons, Napoleon leads the Russian Bear, Pavel, on chains.
The cartoon was supposed to emphasize the dependent role of Russia in the upcoming alliance with France, which was not true. The poem that accompanies the picture contains an amazing "foresight". Bear-Paul says, “Soon my power will fall!”, And the blame for the future is laid on Paul himself with the words “I am preparing my fall intensely.” To interpret this differently as a signal to the already formed team of killers of Pavel, and also as a preparation public opinion Europe to the coming "changes" within Russia is difficult. And it’s clearly not worth pitying the depicted crazy monster ...
Although then they still perfectly understood that this was propaganda - in the same newspapers that write about the madness of the Russian Tsar, it was recognized that his foreign policy line was quite reasonable. According to British observers: "Malta is not just a whim of Paul", but quite coincides with Russia's interests to have a base in the Mediterranean against Turkey. The Russian fleet, which acted as part of the Second Neutrality, was able to break the British blockade of Europe and land troops on the British Isles - a long-standing fear of the British. This rationalism of Paul's policy and its correspondence to the interests of Russia was recognized through gritted teeth by the English politicians of those years, and to this day the Russian historiographical tradition does not recognize...
But back to the information war of the winter of 1801... January 27, in the English press there is a message that in London "a Russian official arrived with news of the removal of Paul and the appointment of a Regency Council headed by the Empress and Prince Alexander." Exactly a month and a half remained before Pavel's death ...
Here is a kind of black magic of the information war: persistently repeating what you want to achieve, as if it ALREADY happened, you change Reality, preparing in advance the acceptance of what is yet to happen. This method of information warfare was then used by Europe for the first time, but by no means for the last time! No one in Europe or in Russia was surprised when March 11, 1801. Emperor Paul was killed...
Well, in the end, you have a few more pictures from the European press
1854 (Crimean War)
1877 (beginning of the Russian-Turkish war)
1899-1901 (second redistribution of China, due to the emergence of new players on this board of Russia, Germany and Japs)
And finally, 1914
Russian fine art of the tenth century. - 1917
The Academy of Theater Arts published in 2004 “Universal Synchronistic Tables. History, philosophy, science, art, literature. Facts, names, dates" second edition. The section of Russian fine arts and architecture turned out to be insufficiently complete to get an idea of the development of Russian art throughout its almost thousand-year development. A comparison of the time of creation of works of architecture, painting, sculpture, individual artists gives a more accurate idea of the development of the artistic life of the country as a whole.
Synchronistic table on Russian art of the 10th - early 20th century corresponds to the course of Russian art taught at the St. Petersburg Academy of Theater Arts.
In tables, the creation date of a work of art does not always reflect the actual time of its creation. This is especially true for the works of the early centuries. Among researchers there are different opinions about the creation of a work of art. The dates that are most traditional for art criticism were chosen. A certain difficulty exists with the dating of the creation of architectural structures, because. researchers usually indicate either the end date of the project, or the date of completion of construction, or the entire period from the creation of the project to its implementation.
When choosing the works of the artist, several of the most significant works, which give, more or less, a complete picture of their work.
The years of the life of the artist, architect are indicated at his first mention. In the future, they are not indicated.
989-996 Tithe Church in Kiev
1017-1032 Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev. Mosaics and frescoes of the cathedral.
Middle of the 11th century: Icon "Peter and Paul". Novgorod Art Museum-Reserve.
HP in.
1108-1113 Mosaics of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev.
1113 St. Nicholas Cathedral in Novgorod.
1144 Alympius (?). Icon "Our Lady of Oranta" - ("Great Panagia"). Moscow. GTG
1119 St. George's Cathedral of the St. George's Monastery in Novgorod.
1130s-1140s Icon "St. George. Moscow. Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
First half of the HP century. Icon of Vladimirskaya Mother of God. Moscow. GTG.
HP in. Icon "Angel Golden Hair". SPB., GRM
1156 Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery in Pskov.
1158-1160 Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.
1164 Golden Gate in Vladimir.
1165 Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. Sculptural decor.
1130-1190s Icon "Annunciation". Moscow, GTG.
1130-1190s Icon "Savior Not Made by Hands".. Moscow. GTG
1194-1197 Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir. Sculptural decor.
1198 Frescoes in the Church of the Savior of Nereditsa near Novgorod.
XIII century.
1230-1234 Sculpture of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky.
XIII century. Icon "Assumption". Moscow. GTG
XIII century. Icon of the Mother of God Hodegetria (Guide). Moscow. GTG
XIII century. Icon "Nikola". SPB., GRM.
XIII century. Icon "John of the Ladder, George and Blasius". SPB., GRM
XIII century. Icon "Nikola Lipny". (Novgorod Historical and Architectural Museum Reserve.
Х1У c.
Around 1300 Icon "Archangel Michael". Moscow, GTG.
Beginning Х1У c. Icon "St. George in Life". SPB., GRM.
Around 1314 Icon of Our Lady of Tolgskaya. Yaroslavl Regional Museum of Fine Arts.
Around 1327. Icon "Our Lady of Tolgskaya" ("Throne"). Moscow, GTG.
Early 11th century Icon "Boris and Gleb". SPB., GRM.
1363 Church of the Assumption on the Volotovo field, near Novgorod. Frescoes.
1367 The first stone Kremlin in Moscow.
1374 Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin Street in Novgorod.
K. 1360 - 1370s Frescoes in the Church of Theodore Stratilat in Novgorod.
1378 Theophanes the Greek (1330s-1405/1415). Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyina Street.
Late 11th century Icon "Miracle of George about the snake". SPB., GRM.
K. Х1У century. Icon "Archangel Gabriel". SPB., GRM.
Х1У c. Icon of the Savior Not Made by Hands. Moscow, GTG
Х1У c. Icon "Resurrection - Descent into Hell". SPB., GRM.
Х1У c. Theophanes the Greek. Icon "Assumption of the Mother of God".
16th century
1405 Theophanes the Greek, Prokhor from Gorodets, Andrei Rublev (C. 1360-1430). Painting of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
1405 Theophanes the Greek. Icon of the Mother of God. Moscow. Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
N. HU century. Theophanes the Greek. Icon "Transfiguration".. Moscow, State Tretyakov Gallery.
art museum-reserve.
1408 Rublev A., Cherny D. Painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.
1410-1420 Rublev A. Icon "Trinity".
1420s Rublev A. Icons of the "Zvenigorod rank". Moscow, GTG.
1433 The Faceted Chamber of the Novgorod Kremlin.
1467 Icon "Praying Novgorodians". (Novgorod Historical and Architectural Museum Reserve.
1475-1479 Aristotle Fioravanti. Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
1482 Dionysius (1430/1440-1508?). Icon of Our Lady Hodegetria. SPB., GRM.
1480s Workshop of Dionysius. Icon "Metropolitan Alexei with Life". Moscow, GTG.
1484-1489 Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
1487-1491 Marco Ruffo, Pietro Solari. The Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.
1485-1495 Aleviz the New, Pietro Solari. Walls of the Moscow Kremlin.
Late 16th century Icon "Flor and Laurus". Moscow, GTG.
Late 16th century Icon "Battle of Novgorodians with Suzdal". Moscow, GTG.
1500 Workshop of Dionysius. Icon "Crucifixion". Moscow, GTG.
16th century
1502-1503 Dionysius. Frescoes in the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Theotokos at the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda.
1505-1509 Aleviz New. Cathedral of the Archangel Moscow Kremlin.
1532 Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomna.
1554 Church of John the Baptist in the village. Diakovo near Moscow.
1554-1560 Postnik, Barma. Cathedral "Protection on the Moat" ("St. Basil's Cathedral") in Moscow.
1505-1600 Church of St. John of the Ladder in the Moscow Kremlin ("Ivan the Great Bell Tower").
1595-1602 Fyodor Kon. Fortifications of Smolensk.
16th century Icon "The Parable of the Blind Man and the Lame Man". SPB., GRM.
16th century Icon "The Vision of John of the Ladder". SPB., GRM.
17th century
1647-1650 Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl.
1668 Ushakov S. (1626-1986). Icon "Tree of the Russian State". Moscow, GTG.
1671 Ushakov S. Icon "Trinity". SPB., GRM.
1680-1681 Frescoes of the Church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl.
1693 Church of the Intercession in Fili. Under Moscow.
years
1704-1707 Zarudny I.P. Church of the Archangel Gabriel ("Menshikov Tower") in Moscow.
1710-1714. A. Schluter. Summer Palace of Peter 1 in St. Petersburg
1714 Rastrelli K. (1675-1744). Anna Ioannovna with a black boy.
1717 Building plan of St. Petersburg.
1714-1717 Zubov A.F. (1682/83-1751). Panorama of St. Petersburg.
1714-1725 The system of fountains in Peterhof.
1720s Nikitin I.N. (c. 1680-after 1742). Portrait of Chancellor G.I. Golovkin.
1720s Nikitin I.N. Portrait of an outdoor hetman.
1725 Nikitin I.N. Peter 1 on his deathbed.
1729 Matveev A.M. (1701/1704-1739). Self-portrait with his wife.
1712-1733 Trezzini D.A. (About 1670-1734). Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
1730-1734 Zemtsov M.G. (1688-1743). Church of Simeon II and Anna in St. Petersburg.
1722-1742 Trezzini D.A. The building of the twelve colleges.
1720s-1747 Rastrelli K. Monument to Peter 1. Installed in 1800
OK. 1750 Vishnyakov I.Ya. (1699-1761). Portrait of Sarah Fermor.
1752-1757 Rastrelli V.V. (1700-1757). Grand Palace in Tsarskoye Selo.
1757 Foundation of the Imperial Academy of Arts.
1754-1762 Rastrelli V.V. Winter Palace in St. Petersburg.
1762 Antropov A.P. (1716-1795). Portrait of Peter Sh.
1763 Losenko A.P. (1737-1773). Portrait of the actor F. G. Volkov.
1748-1764 Rastrelli V.V. Smolny Monastery in Saint Petersburg.
1762-1764 Lomonosov M.V. (1711-1785). Mosaic "Poltava battle".
1762-1764 Rinaldi A. (c. 1709-1794). Chinese Palace, Rolling Hill in Oranienbaum near St. Petersburg.
1769 Levitsky D.G. (1735-1812). Portrait of A.F. Kokorinov.
1769 Gordeev F.G. (1744-1810). Prometheus.
1770 Losenko A.P. Vladimir and Rogneda.
1772 Rokotov F.S. (1735-1808). Portrait of N.E. Struisky.
1772 Rokotov F.S. Portrait of A.P. Struiskaya.
1773 Losenko A.P. Hector's farewell to Andromache.
1770s Levitsky D.G. Portraits of pupils of the Smolny Convent for Noble Maidens.
1773 Shubin F.I. (1740-1805). Portrait of A.M. Golitsyn.
1773-1777 Felten Yu.M. (1730-1801). The fence of the Summer Garden from the Neva in St. Petersburg.
1768-1782 Falcone E.-M. (1716-1791). Monument to Peter 1 ("The Bronze Horseman") in St. Petersburg.
1783 Levitsky D.G. Ekaterina P is a legislator in the temple of the goddess of justice.
1784 Prokofiev I.P. (1758-1828). Actaeon pursued by dogs.
1768-1785 Rinaldi A. Marble Palace in St. Petersburg.
1784-1786 Bazhenov V.I. (1737-1799). Pashkov house in Moscow.
1780s Kazakov M.F. (1738-1812). The Great Hall of the former Nobility Assembly in Moscow.
1783-1787 J. Quarenghi (1744-1817). Hermitage Theater in St. Petersburg.
1764-1788 Kokorinov A.F. (1726-1772), Valen-Delamot J.B. (1729-1800). The building of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg.
1783-1789 Quarenghi J. The main building of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. 1783-1789 Starov I.V. (1745-1808). Tauride Palace in St. Petersburg
Second half of the 1780s Rokotov F.S. Portrait of VN Surovtseva.
1790 Borovikovsky V.L. (1757-1825). Portrait of O.F. Filippova.
1786-1793 Kazakov M.F. The building of Moscow University.
1797 Borovikovsky V.L. Portrait of M.I. Lopukhina.
OK. 1798 Shubin F.I. Portrait of A.A. Bezborodko.
Second half of the 1790s Borovikovsky V.L. Portrait of E.N. Arsenyeva.
1799 Kozlovsky M.I. (1753-1802). Monument to A.V. Suvorov in St. Petersburg.
1799 Borovikovsky V.L. Portrait of A.V. Kurakin.
First half of the 19th century
1800 Shubin F.I. Portrait of Paul 1.
1797-1800 Bazhenov V.I., Brenna V. (1745-1820). Engineering (Mikhailovsky Castle) in St. Petersburg.
1780-1801 Cameron C. (1730s-1812). Architectural ensemble in Pavlovsk near St. Petersburg.
1804 Kiprensky O.A. (1782-1836). Portrait of A.K. Schwalbe.
1809 Kiprensky O.A. Portrait of E.V. Davydov.
1805-1811 Thomas de Thomon (1750-1813). Stock Exchange building in St. Petersburg.
1801-1811 Voronikhin A.N. (1759-1814). Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
1813 Demut-Malinovsky V.I. (1779-1848/49). Russian Scevola.
1821/1822 Venetsianov A.G. (1780-1847). Barn.
1806-1823 Zakharov A.D. (1761-1811). The building of the Main Admiralty in St. Petersburg.
First half of the 1820s Venetsianov A.G. On the arable land.
1821-1824 Bove O.I. (1784-1834). Bolshoi Theater in Moscow.
1824 Bruni F.A. (1799-1875). Death of Horatio's sister Camilla.
1819-1825 Rossi K.I. (1775-1849). Mikhailovsky Palace.
1827 Kiprensky O.A. Portrait of A.S. Pushkin.
1827 Shedrin S.F. (1791-1830). Terrace by the sea.
1819-1829 Rossi K.I. The building of the General Staff in St. Petersburg.
1828-1832 Rossi K.I. Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg.
1828 Kiprensky A.O. Self-portrait.
1829 Shchedrin S.F. On the veranda.
1829-1832 Bryullov K.P. (1799-1852). Rider.
1830-1833 Bryullov K.P. The last day of Pompeii.
1829-1834 Montferrand O. (1786-1858). Alexander Column in St. Petersburg.
1828-1834 Stasov V.P. (1769-1848). Narva triumphal gates.
1831-1834 Ivanov A.A. (1806-1858). Apollo, Hyacinth and Cypress engaged in music and singing.
1835 Ivanov A.A. Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene after the resurrection.
1813-1836 Tolstoy F.P. (1783-1873). Event medallions Patriotic War 1812 and the military operations of 1813-1814.
1841 Bruni F. A. Copper Serpent.
1841 Bryullov K.P. Portrait of Yu.P. Saltykova.
1845 Ivanov A.A. Appian Way.
1848 Fedotov P.A. (1815-1852). Major's matchmaking (Smotriny in a merchant's house)
1839-1849 Ton K.A. (1794-1881). Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow.
1850 Aivazovsky I.K. (1871-1900). Ninth shaft.
Art of the XIX century. The main problem of the era.
Periodization of art:
1. until 1815 (in Russia until the early 1830s) - the final phase of classicism (style empire)– J.-L. David, J.-O.-D, Ingres, K. P. Bryullov;
2. 1815 -1830s (in Russia - until the end of the 1940s) - the formation and flourishing of style romanticism- E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, S. Shchedrin, O. Kiprensky;
3. 1830-1870s - development realism(“natural school”, poetic, critical) - G. Courbet, J. Millet, O. Daumier, A. Venetsianov, P. Fedotov, V. Tropinin, A, Ivanov, “wanderers” (Perov, Kramskoy, Repin, Surikov and etc.);
4. 1874-1886s - motion impressionists- E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir, K. Pizarro, A. Sisley and others;
5. 1880s - 1910s - symbolism and style modern- G. Klimt, M. Vrubel.
The 19th century is the era of social upheavals in Europe (a series of revolutions and periods of political reaction in France). This is the time of the struggle of traditionalists and subverters of all and all kinds of authorities, revolution and reaction, classics and non-classical innovative trends in art and public life;
Apotheosis in the development of artistic principles and traditions that began in the Renaissance and are completing their development, as well as the emergence of alternative forms of art and artistic life;
The era of technological revolution, the flowering of the natural sciences, the positivist approach in the humanities (historicity of thinking);
The era of the beginning of the World Exhibitions in London (1851) and Paris (1855, 1867, 1878, 1889, 1900);
Standardized machine production and industrial technologies are developing (cast iron, mass production of furniture, wallpaper, textiles, and other interior items);
The flourishing of bourgeois life, the corresponding lifestyle, art and style of interior design - Biedermeier(1830-1870s);
The era of the democratization of public life and the multi-layered lines of development of art. It reflects the interests of various social classes (not only the aristocracy and the big bourgeoisie, but also representatives of advanced democratic trends);
Art responds to the topical social needs of its time (magazine satirical graphics, the movement of "wanderers" in Russia), becomes a phenomenon of social life. On the other hand, in England and Germany, the ideas of "pure art" or "art for art's sake" are born;
Romantics "open" for European art the world of culture of the East, Africa, Japan; the modern era awakens interest in ethnoforms and the world of traditional folk art;
The plastic arts give way to literature. The 19th century is the century of monumental form in literature (novel, epic, saga). Monumentality in art is leaving. Among the plastic arts, easel painting and graphics dominate, especially printed ones, used for replicating images;
The development of mass forms of art, the appearance along with unique man-made products of replicated standard reproduction forms. The heyday of popular prints, folk pictures, as well as magazine graphics (including satirical ones), signs, posters, theater and concert posters;
The emergence of new types of art - photography and cinema;
Architecture is changing its appearance, going through a phase of the so-called. "historicism" or eclecticism, and turns from art to production, to engineering(technological process; it develops as the architecture of a large industrial city (a project for the reconstruction of London, the reconstruction of Paris under the leadership of its prefect, Baron Haussmann);
The emergence of new types public buildings: stations, markets, large shopping arcades and department stores, as well as bourgeois mansions, "profitable" houses (with apartments for rent), factories, printing houses, exhibition pavilions, transport hubs (metro);
In the architecture of the end of the century, the legacy of the theorists of "paper" architecture from the time of the French Revolution (Ledoux, Lee, Boulay) is involved;
Problems of utilitarian urban planning (organization of traffic flows);
The search for the functional specification of the building and its reflection in architectural form(rudiments of functionalism); search for new materials and constructive solutions (frame construction made of cast iron, glass);
In the artistic form - a combination of rational design and enhanced decorativeness (stylistic eclecticism and advanced engineering achievements - the G. Eiffel tower in Paris);
New principles in architecture modern: rejection order system, symmetry and rigid geometry of the architectural volume, curvilinear outlines, asymmetric layout and free spatial composition, flatness and graphic ornamentation, the use of "natural" materials with the effect of man-made brick, wood, ceramics, majolica, forged metal gratings), decorative facades, diversity in scale and window configurations, the use of external ornamental friezes, wavy linear rhythms (Paris metro stations by G. Guimard, bourgeois mansions by F. Schechtel in Moscow, Vienna post office by O. Wagner);
Sculpture is experiencing not only a crisis of monumentalism, but also a specific crisis associated with the decline of plastic values in the visual arts. It experiences its revival in the second half of the century in the work of such innovators as O. Rodin.
Academism (in criticism and creative process) becomes a manifestation of the reactionary style in artistic life; it turns into a reactionary theoretical doctrine that hinders the development of art;
The division of art into official (Academies of Fine Arts, Salon) and unofficial, advanced, innovative (artistic movement of the Impressionists or "Nabids", for example);
The era of active development of art criticism. The activity of the aristocratic Salons of the 18th century accompanies the emergence of the Salon of Independents, as well as critics. Art is divided into official academic and opposition, advanced in terms of public sentiment and tastes.
Painting is the triumph of pictorial narration (i.e., narrative). monumental forms, huge size, historical canvases epic in nature (academicians, Semiradsky):
Among the pictorial genres, historical with elements of everyday life, national landscape, portraits in the interior, in sculpture - complex everyday multi-figure scenes depicting human and animal figures (animalistic compositions). There is a tendency towards genre integration within a single monumental epic canvas (the forerunners of socialist realism of the 20th century);
New pictorial vision impressionists 1874-1886s - the final phase of the heyday of realism in painting - the triumph of a fleeting momentary visual impressions, subjective, dynamic, unique experience of time and space; rejection of the plot, anecdote, narration;
The circle of impressionists included: E. Manet, C. Monet, O. Renoir, C. Pizarro, G. Caillebotte, B. Morisot, E. Degas and others.
The Impressionists are masters of landscape, portraiture and outdoor group scenes.
The innovative technique of the Impressionists (alla prima, or "in one layer"): a fusion of color, light and textured dynamic brushstroke, single-layer writing, color mixing and focusing the image directly into the viewer's eye; color and texture modeling of an object mass with a colorful mass, a fleeting gliding of the eye over the surface (by analogy with the perception of life as a single dynamic undivided stream of visual impressions);
The Impressionists are the heirs of the painting style of the great masters of the 17th century: Rubens, Velasquez, Rembrandt, Hals;
A new pictorial method: work directly "on nature", i.e. in the open air (“en plein air”), in direct interaction with her, a sketchy manner, a quick open brushstroke, reflecting the author's subjective vision;
International style of the late 1880s and early 1900s – the search for a universal language of a new synthesis of art and an artistic ensemble based on architecture – the Art Nouveau style (Secession, Jugendstil, Art Nouveau);
Synthesis of spatial arts as a reflection of the total aestheticization of life and everyday life. The decorative ensemble of Art Nouveau includes the building itself, the interior, stained glass compositions, household items and equipment, costumes, and accessories. Style basis - non-classical (Gothic) style in a modern interpretation;
In painting - the attraction to the decorative forms of panels, fairy-tale themes and symbolic figurative forms (O. Redon, G. Klimt, M. Vrubel); transformation of paintings into graphics;
Style features of modern style:
Decorativeness of color and texture, attraction to dynamics, smooth undulating rhythms, complex natural forms (iris flowers, lilies), open form, and also in Russia - attraction to historical styles in their decorative interpretation and to folk art (pseudo-Russian, neo-Gothic).
Generation of Post-Impressionists (late 19th - early 20th centuries):
1. Pointillism of A. Sisley and P. Signac as a revision of the creative method of the Impressionists;
2. P. Cezanne as a forerunner of pictorial abstraction and cubism;
3. P. Gauguin anticipated the advent of primitivism:
4. W. van Gogh as a forerunner of expressionism
5. Section 1X. ART OF THE MODERN TIME (XX centuries)
Historically, it so happened that in Russia the centuries are written in Roman numerals, although lately one can increasingly see the use of Arabic numerals to designate a century. This happens due to banal illiteracy and ignorance of how to write this or that century in Roman numerals, and people are also increasingly asking questions, what is the 19th century in numbers?
What is the 19th century
To not just answer the question What is the 19th century and to get rid of such questions in the future, you need to understand how Roman numerals are read. In fact, there is nothing complicated here.
So, Roman numerals are denoted as follows:
I-1
II - 2
III - 3
IV-4
V-5
VI–6
VII-7
VIII - 8
IX-9
X-10
It turns out that only 5 Roman numerals have an individual style, the rest are obtained by substituting I. If I is in front of the main digit, this means minus 1, if after, then plus 1.
With this knowledge, you can easily answer the question - what century is the 19th century?
What is the 19th century
And yet, what is the 19th century? Reading these simple numbers, many break them into 3 values - X, I, X and get some very strange century - 10 - 1 - 10, i.e. 10 thousand 110 centuries. Of course, this is not the correct layout. The number XIX consists of 2 components - X and IX and is deciphered very simply - 1 and 9, i.e. it turns out 19.
Thus, the answer to the question, what is the 19th century, will be the 19th century.
What will the rest of the centuries written in Roman numerals look like?
XI-11
XII - 12
XIII-13
XIV-14
XV-15
XVI-16
XVII-17
XVIII - 18
XIX - 19
XX-20
The age in which we now live is denoted as XXI.
What is the 19th century
Many people wonder why in Russia centuries began to be denoted by Roman numerals, because everyone knows that in the same English language centuries are indicated by familiar Arabic numerals, which are known and understood by everyone, so why complicate your life?
In fact, everything is quite simple, the fact is that Roman numerals are used far from exclusively in Russia and not only in the designation of the century. It is believed that Roman numerals are more solemn and significant than the banal Arabic ones known to everyone. Thus, Roman numerals have been used for centuries to denote particularly significant events or to give some kind of solemnity, to highlight.
It is quite easy to make sure that not only the age is indicated by Roman numerals, it is enough just to look at the book edition of the works in several volumes, where the volumes are probably numbered in Roman numerals. In all countries, monarchs were numbered in Roman numerals: Peter I, Elizabeth II, Louis XIV, etc.
In some countries, even years are denoted by Roman numerals, which is much more difficult than learning which century the 19th century is, because when hundreds and thousands are added, Roman numerals also increase by several digits - L, C, V and M. Years marked with Roman numerals, unlike centuries, look really intimidating, so 1984 is written as MCMLXXXIV.
Also, Roman numerals denote all the Olympic Games. Thus, in 2014, the XXII Winter Olympic Games were held in Sochi.
Thus, it can be said that without knowing what century the 19th century is, a person deprives himself of the opportunity to freely read about various events taking place in the world.
Most likely, in the near future, centuries in Russia will still be indicated by traditional Arabic numerals, and questions like what century the 19th century is will disappear by themselves, because the nineteenth century will be written in a way that is understandable to everyone - the 19th century.
And yet, it is simply necessary for a literate person to know at least the first hundred Roman numerals, because not only centuries are indicated by them.
