Philosophers of the Middle Ages. Features of medieval philosophy

This post is addressed to everyone who dared to storm the judicial system on their own, without the help of lawyers. This is not an easy matter. However, there are situations when it is not possible to turn to professionals. Perhaps the small amount of the claim makes hiring lawyers unprofitable, or there are other circumstances. Therefore, we present a step-by-step plan for independently applying to the arbitration court.

Procedure for filing a claim in the arbitration court:

1. Determine the subject of the claim. What do we want from the defendant?

This point cannot be underestimated. Sometimes they say: “let him return the money or give away the goods, or let him bring another product, or we will refuse the contract altogether,” etc. By the time the claim is filed, the claim must be formed without any alternative. We must choose a direction that we will strictly adhere to.

2. Determine the basis of the claim. What standards will we be based on?

For example, we found out that we need to terminate the contract. This can be done in different ways: declaring the contract invalid, declaring it void, declaring it unconcluded, or terminating the contract through the court. It all depends on the specific situation. Each method corresponds to a certain group of norms of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation. Thus, you need to decide on the method of terminating the contract and refer to the relevant provisions of the law that will serve as the basis for terminating the contract.

Here you will have to arm yourself with the regulatory framework and judicial practice.

3. We draw up a statement of claim. What should be included in the claim?

The statement of claim must be made in writing. The law provides the opportunity to apply to the court by filling out a form on the court’s website, but due to established rules, we recommend doing this in writing. The statement of claim must contain the following information:

• name of the arbitration court;
• the name of the plaintiff and his location, as well as the plaintiff’s contact information (telephone, email address);
• name of the defendant and his location;
• requirements with reference to laws, circumstances of the case and evidence;
• cost of the claim and calculation of the amount of the claim;
• information about compliance with the claim procedure, if it is mandatory by virtue of a contract or law for this category of disputes;
• if the court has taken interim measures, this must be indicated;
• list of attached documents.

4. Which arbitration court should I file my claim in? Deciding on jurisdiction

Arbitration courts have a four-level system: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, cassation courts and the economic disputes panel of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. For now, we are interested in filing a claim, which means the first instance. Arbitration courts of first instance are divided by region, for example, the Arbitration Court of Moscow, the Arbitration Court of the Moscow Region, the Arbitration Court of the Nizhny Novgorod Region, the Arbitration Court of the Republic of Tatarstan, etc.

First of all, you need to look at what is written in the contract regarding jurisdiction. If the court is directly indicated, then the lawsuit should be filed there. The contract may also state that the claim is filed at the location of the defendant (or plaintiff). Here, too, everything is clear - as it is written, so we act.

Often the contract does not say anything about this or says “in accordance with current legislation.” If so, then the rule applies: “at the location of the defendant.”

Let us make a reservation that here we are talking about jurisdiction in a dispute with a contractual counterparty. If the dispute involves real estate rights, bankruptcy, or other specific areas, different rules apply.

5. We pay the state fee

The amount of the state fee depends on the category of the dispute and the amount of the claim. The lower limit of the state duty on claims for the recovery of funds is 2,000 rubles, the upper limit is 200,000 rubles. If we are talking, for example, about declaring an agreement invalid or terminating the agreement, the amount of the state duty will be 6,000 rubles. The amount of state duty for claims in arbitration courts is given in Art. 333.21 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.

6. We send a copy of the statement of claim to the defendant

Before filing a claim with the arbitration court, it is necessary to send a copy of the claim to the defendant. If the address specified in the contract differs from the information from the Unified State Register of Legal Entities, it is better to send copies to both addresses.

The law states that copies of documents that the defendant does not have must be attached to the copy of the statement of claim. In practice, this is usually not done; copies of documents are handed over during the proceedings.

If several defendants are involved in the case, a copy of the claim is sent to each of them, if third parties are involved - the same procedure.

There are several options for delivering a copy of the claim: by courier against signature, by courier service (DHL, Pony Express, etc.), by Russian Post. We recommend using the latter option, as it is more favored by the courts.

7. What should I include with my claim? We collect a set of documents

The plaintiff himself decides what documents he will use to substantiate his claims, but at the same time, the law establishes a list of mandatory documents that must be attached. Here they are:

• notification of delivery or other documents confirming the sending of a copy of the statement of claim;
• a document confirming payment of the state duty;
• documents confirming the stated claims;
• a copy of the certificate of state registration of a legal entity (plaintiff);
• power of attorney to sign the statement of claim, if it was not signed by the general director;
• a copy of the ruling on securing the claim (if such a ruling was made);
• evidence of compliance with the claim procedure, if it is mandatory by virtue of a contract or law;
• a draft agreement, if a claim is filed to compel the conclusion of an agreement;
• an extract from the Unified State Register of Legal Entities with information about the defendant (at the time of filing the claim, the extract should not be older than 30 days).

What else do you need to know about filing a claim in arbitration court?

In order to independently file a claim in arbitration court, you will need to further study the issue in relation to a specific situation. Each case has its own characteristics.

However, the step-by-step plan provided is universal in nature. It can be safely taken as the basis for any claim, making adjustments depending on a particular case. Try it and share your success!

The Arbitration Court considers economic disputes, as well as disputes related to business activities. It is a special court for the consideration of commercial disputes that directly affect the interests of business entities.

The court is also authorized to consider claims and statements from control and supervisory authorities, including when it is necessary to liquidate a legal entity or bring individual entrepreneurs and companies to administrative liability.

System of arbitration courts of the Russian Federation

The system consists of 4 hierarchical links:

1. Collegium for Economic Disputes Supreme Court Russia. Until 2014, disputes were considered by the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation.
2. Arbitration courts of cassation (federal arbitration courts of districts). The territory of the Russian Federation is divided into 10 arbitration districts, for example, the Arbitration Court of the North Caucasus District in the city of Krasnodar.
3. Arbitration courts of appeal began to be formed in 2003. Each arbitration district has two courts of appeal.
4. Arbitration courts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are the lowest level, for example, the Moscow City Arbitration Court.

The activities of courts are regulated by the Federal Law No. 1 “On the Judicial System” and a special law - the Federal Law “On Arbitration Courts” dated April 28, 1995 and the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation and other special laws (for example, the Federal Law “On Arbitration Assessors”).

Procedure for going to court

According to Art. 4 APC of the Russian Federation There are 3 forms of appeal to the authority:

• statement of claim;
• statement;
• performance.

The lawsuit is filed in cases that begin from civil relations. The application must be submitted in cases of special proceedings (including when issuing a court order, in cases affecting public interests). The proposal is submitted by the prosecutor - in defense of public interests or when challenging previously rendered court decisions. There is an opportunity to file an appeal and cassation complaint - when appealing judicial acts of the first instance. The result of the consideration of the case by the arbitration authority will be a decision, determination and ruling.

When the issue is resolved on its merits, the judge makes a decision. A ruling is made if it is necessary to resolve certain procedural issues, including when satisfying the request of one of the parties. Higher authorities make decisions in the form of a resolution. The jurisdiction of cases is established by Ch. 4 Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. Most lawsuits are filed at the location of the defendant.

Filing a claim

The rules for the jurisdiction of arbitration disputes are determined by Art. 34-39 Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. Before going to court, the applicant must analyze the controversial situation and study the documents on the basis of which the application should be drawn up. The list of such information includes:

• agreements on the basis of which relations between counterparties and third parties were built;
• additional agreements and annexes to the main transaction forms;
• business correspondence between disputing parties, including legally significant messages;
• accounting and financial documentation. It can also be provided at the request of the court - when satisfying a petition to obtain evidence.
• information that confirms the fact that the parties tried to resolve the dispute pre-trial - claims, information letters, notifications;
• writs of execution, decisions of arbitration courts, as well as international courts.

The claim should indicate:

1. The name of the arbitration court to which the plaintiff applies.
2. Information about the applicant - his location (legal and actual address), contact details.
3. Information about the defendant – his place of residence (location), name of the legal entity and (or) individual entrepreneur.
4. Information about third parties - including indicating government authorities or local government.

The court must also provide information that confirms that the parties adhered to the pre-trial procedure for resolving the dispute. Simultaneously with the claim, a citizen (IP) or legal entity can file an application for interim measures, including the need to seize the defendant’s bank accounts and his real estate. If measures to secure a claim should be applied to specific property, then it must be cited detailed characteristics and indicate its location.

Required documents

Their list is indicated in Art. 126 Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation. It provides:

• notification that the claim and the necessary copies of documents have been sent to all participants in the case.
• a receipt confirming payment of the state duty, including if the case provides for its installment or deferment;
• an extract from the Unified State Register of Legal Entities or Unified State Register of Individual Entrepreneurs, copies of the organization’s constituent documents;
• documents confirming the procedure for compliance with pre-trial dispute resolution.
• information confirming the authority of the applicant - order of appointment to the position general director enterprises, etc.

If a representative of an organization goes to court, a notarized power of attorney will be required. When an application is submitted to electronic form, then, in addition to copies of electronic documents, you may need to provide their originals to the court.

If they are unreasonably delayed, then the plaintiff or other interested party has the right to send an application to the chairman of the court to speed up the proceedings, which must be considered within 5 days after the documents are accepted. In his ruling, the chairman has the right to set specific deadlines for consideration of the case, as well as recommend to the parties specific actions necessary to speed up the consideration of the case.

Brief instructions

The applicant needs:

1. Examine the documents on the basis of which the dispute with the counterparty arose;
2. Prepare a claim or other procedural document in accordance with the rules of the Arbitration Procedure Code of the Russian Federation.
3. File a claim in court in person or through a proxy.
4. Participate in court hearings or send a legal representative to them. Failure to appear in court without good reason usually is not an obstacle to the consideration of the case.

Arbitration disputes are complex and often require qualified knowledge in the field of finance, credit, and accounting. When going to court and at other stages of the proceedings, it is advisable to enlist the help of a qualified lawyer.

Questions:

The Middle Ages: the essence of the era. Origins of medieval philosophy.

Theocentrism.

Medieval picture of the world.

Anthropological concept of the Middle Ages.

Philosophy of the Middle Ages: scholasticism, nominalism and realism.

Medieval theodicy.

An assessment of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. Basic concepts:

scholasticism, patristics, theodicy, providentialism, apologetics, universalism, nominalism, realism, polytheism, monotheism, creationism, scholasticism, monism. 1. Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of the era of feudalism (V - XV centuries). In the history of philosophy, this period is assessed as something negative: ten centuries of darkness, “the long, dark Middle Ages.” Historical memory has treated the Middle Ages unfairly. It was indeed a long period, and in it there was something not only dark, but also worthy of attention and continuity. However, in dictionaries and encyclopedias the previous stage (antiquity) and the subsequent one (Renaissance) were characterized as the era of the flourishing of human intelligence and philosophical thought

, and the Middle Ages - as a break in the formation of spirituality. And only recently has the attitude towards this complex and unique phenomenon in the development of culture begun to be reconsidered. The analysis of any historical period should be approached dialectically: to see the high and the low, worthy of both criticism and imitation. This period, like others, is characterized by contradictions, only here they appear most visibly. On the one hand, there is a process of formation of nations, languages, states, promoting progress, and on the other hand, religion extends its influence to all spheres of life, including the development of philosophical thought, trying to limit it to the framework of dogma, which led to regression. It is no coincidence that philosophy received the name scholasticism (Greek schole

- school), because it was divorced from reality and put in the service of theology. Theology shackled thought, as well as school education, where learning was reduced to memorizing frozen dogmas. This period did not appear suddenly. To understand the dynamics, it is important to see how the present is born from the past, and the future from the present. Becoming medieval culture and philosophy began already in the 1st – 4th centuries. as a synthesis of two traditions - Christian revelation and. Christianity replaces the ancient and also pagan gods (“pagan” religions were the product of the creativity of a “given” people, i.e. they were religions of one “language”), in other words, monotheism (monotheism) replaces polytheism (polytheism) , which determines the foundations of the emerging picture of the world and the worldview corresponding to the era. With Christianity, the universalism of the worldview is established. To spread Christianity and turn it into a world religion, a justification for dogma was required, which was fully consistent with ancient Greek philosophy in its idealistic version (hence the appeal to the concepts of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle).

But Christianity also introduces new ideas unknown to antiquity: the recognition of one God as the creator of all things, the equality of all peoples before him, the finitude of the earthly world and the eternity of the heavenly world. A symbiosis of ideas that correspond to the spirit of the times ancient Greek philosophy and the dogmas of Christianity appeared patristics(lat. pater- father) - works of the church fathers of the first centuries of Christianity. Some of them advocated the need to turn to philosophy and rationalize dogma, others, on the contrary, called philosophers “patriarchs of heretics” and believed that philosophy destroys everything beautiful that is created by faith.

Thus, Tertullian (II – III centuries), a Christian theologian from Carthage, in his “Apologetics” said that “after Christ no curiosity is needed; after the Gospel there is no need for any research.” He openly contrasts Christianity with common human reason: “The Son of God was crucified; We are not ashamed of it, because it is shameful; the son of God died - we fully believe this, because it is absurd. And the buried one rose again; this is true because it is impossible.” Thus, a thesis was proclaimed that became immutable for theologians: “I believe because it is absurd.” The proclamation of absurdity as the highest indicator has been accepted for many centuries. But during the late Middle Ages, a different view was affirmed: it is inappropriate to discard the truths of reason; they are necessary insofar as they prove the truths of faith. Consequently, faith in reason (albeit limiting its capabilities) could not help but strengthen even in the Middle Ages. During this era, Augustine the Blessed, Anselm of Canterbury, Thomas Aquinas and representatives of freethinking - the English philosophers Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, William of Occam - created their works that had a huge impact on the development of theological thought; Arab philosophers - Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes).

2. Considering it more appropriate to consider the philosophy of the Middle Ages not in personalities (since individual systems here are not as original and significant as in ancient philosophy), but conceptually, we will highlight its main characteristics, problems and ways to solve them.

This philosophy was of a theocentric nature, in accordance with which the picture of the world was formed. In his understanding of the world, medieval man proceeds from the main postulate of theocentrism: the source of all things is God. It also lay at the basis of man’s knowledge of the world and himself. Without faith in God, a person simply could not imagine life, could not explain the world and orient himself in it. Belief in God acted as the highest truth around which all other ideas were grouped and all values ​​were correlated. This belief determined the theory creationism(lat. creato– creation) – the creation of the world, living and inanimate nature in a single creative act.

Let us note the main difference in the interpretation of the universe between ancient and medieval thinkers. Ancient philosophers approached this problem from the position of dualism; they saw two principles: active and passive. Both Aristotle and Plato reflected precisely this understanding in their philosophical systems: for Aristotle, matter is passive, form is active, but for Plato, things are passive, ideas are active. The world was seen as consisting of opposites. In the Middle Ages it was asserted monistic principle (from Greek. monos– one, only) – recognition as the basis of one beginning. Dualism gives way to monism.

All theological concepts of the Middle Ages proceed from a single absolute principle, which declares God. Therefore, it is no coincidence that they develop various proofs of the existence of God: rational, intuitive, moral, mystical. One of the most important “proofs” of the existence of God is ontological. It was put forward in the 4th century. Augustine the Blessed and developed by Anselm of Canterbury in the 11th century. Its meaning is as follows: man endows God with special qualities inherent only to him as an all-perfect being. Such an idea could not arise spontaneously. It must be determined by the actual existence of such a being who put such a thought about him into a person. Consequently, the existence of God with such an explanation is not proven, but is deduced from the thought of him: one cannot think of the all-perfect without thinking of it as existing. The inconsistency of such argumentation for a sane person is obvious: after all, thoughts can be both true and false - therefore it is unlawful to deduce the existence of God from thoughts.

The transition from thought to reality was the concept of rational proof of the existence of God, formulated by Thomas Aquinas (XIII century). He puts forward the very fact of the existence of the world as a reliable source. The theologian's main work, Summa Theologiae, contains the system of evidence he developed.

First: recognition of the prime mover. Everything that moves must have a source of movement. Therefore, there is also an original source - God.

Second: recognition of the root cause. Everything in the world has its causes, but the chain of active causes cannot be endless; there must also be a first cause - God.

Third: recognition of absolute necessity. Everything in the world is random, but randomness depends on necessity, manifested through an external cause, which is God.

Fourth: recognition of absolute perfection. Since there are different degrees of perfection in the world, it is logical to assume the existence of the highest degree of perfection, which is God.

Fifth: recognition of global expediency. Everything in the world is harmonious, reasonable and expedient. This harmony could not arise without a foundation, without a source; God is such a super-intelligent principle that orders the world. The last proof is also called teleological.

There is no doubt that the evidence presented is based on a metaphysical understanding of the source of motion and causality (they are considered as something external to matter), on the denial of development and interaction in the material world (matter is passive), on the identification of God with necessity, as well as on the substitution of concepts: the internal source of movement is replaced by an external one, natural causes are replaced by supernatural ones, expediency is replaced by teleology.

3. Medieval ontology, like the ancient one, is two-layered: in Parmenides - authentic and inauthentic being, in Plato - the world of things and ideas; among medieval theologians - the earthly and otherworldly worlds, and these worlds are unequal (everything earthly is belittled for the sake of exalting the heavenly). The principles of ontology are projected onto anthropology. Two substances are defined in a person: body and soul, to which Christian consciousness adds another one - spirit. Thus, according to Christian dogma, spirit, soul and body are united in a person. But the spirit does not belong to man, it is given to him by God; spirit is participation in the divine. Consequently, man is a special kind of substance into which the divine essence is embodied. The medieval concept of man is based on two dogmas: incarnation and resurrection.

Man is a man-god. But the Middle Ages extracted from antiquity the idea of ​​man as a “reasonable animal.” Therefore, it is natural to pose the problem: what is more in a person - animal or divine? AND medieval thinkers They transferred the solution to the problem to the level of the need to suppress the animal nature in man, mortification of the flesh as a means of self-restraint. Asceticism was elevated to the highest criterion of morality, and those qualities that antiquity proclaimed to be truly human - rationality, dignity, self-control - lost their significance. If ancient, and especially Stoic philosophy, as an ideal, proclaimed a person rebellious to fate, courageous, striving to achieve noble goals, then the ideal of the Middle Ages was an ascetic, renouncing all earthly goods and pleasures.

The cult of saints, dating back to the Middle Ages, has been preserved in Christianity to the present day. Renunciation of everything earthly is considered the highest manifestation of the nobility of the soul, the basis for comprehending the divine principle within oneself and fertile soil for the formation of true spirituality, which paves the way to resurrection.

Thus, the solution to the fundamental philosophical problems ontology and anthropology was carried out during the Middle Ages in line with theology. The analysis of philosophical problems was essentially reduced to the analysis of religious problems. Philosophy was not supposed to address real facts. Natural scientific concepts that refuted religious dogma were declared heretical. The “oak of scholasticism” was strong. Philosophy becomes the “handmaiden of theology.” This role is theoretically justified by Thomas Aquinas. On the one hand, he recognized natural scientific truths that come from nature. On the other hand, there are revealed truths that come from God. And philosophy, according to his logic, should be a mediator, a connecting link between them. He was convinced that with the help of reason one can rise to the highest truths of revelation. But if the truths of reason contradict the truths of faith, then they should be discarded. This conclusion is nothing more than “suffocation by hugs.”

4. But one should not think that the Middle Ages period represents a degradation of human thought. The very formulation of philosophical problems was significant enough to improve the intellect. And even within the framework of theological issues, logic was sharpened. For example, the question of the Logos, by which the real world is created (according to the Bible, God created the universe with His Word). What is Logos, the Word? – this is already a philosophical problem. It affects the relationship between the categories of the general and the individual. Discussions in this regard were conducted not only about the essence of the divine Logos, but also about the relationship of this universal to specific things. This is how the line of struggle between nominalism and realism developed. Realists considered the only reality to be general concepts - universals coming from God. They explain the diversity of things, they give rise to everything. The general precedes the real things. Concrete things are only pale copies of the truly real. Realism, undoubtedly, largely repeats the ideas of Platonism. But the dialectic of concepts inherent in Plato was not aimed at comprehending religious truths, but at defining true beauty, goodness, and goodness. Realists openly pursue an objective-idealistic line.

The nominalists took the opposite position. They believed that universals are general concepts- only names, noumena (lat. nomen– title, name) of things. The true reality is the things themselves. On the one hand, nominalism was undoubtedly associated with the materialistic interpretation of the primacy of being and the secondary nature of consciousness. The consistent pursuit of the nominalistic line that ideas arise from real things and do not come from God was progressive in the era of the dominance of religion and the church. On the other hand, when realists said that the real world is imperfect compared to the world of ideas, they questioned the omnipotence of God who created such a world. In other words, God cannot create something perfect. Therefore, the ideas of realists were often declared heretical.

5. Medieval scholastics, conducting discussions, came across insoluble contradictions. Interesting in this regard is the “paradox of the omnipotence of God,” expressed by them in the form of a question: “Can an omnipotent God create a stone that he cannot lift?” – If God is omnipotent, then he must create such a stone, but then he must also lift it...

The works of Augustine the Blessed (5th century) are devoted to the justification of God and the justification of divine providence. The starting point of his concept is borrowed from the “Holy Scripture”: having created man, God endowed him with free will. Therefore, a person can deviate from the righteous path, abandon obedience to the spirit and choose something base. God is relieved of responsibility not only for the imperfect actions of people, but also for the imperfection of the world. God created the world reasonable and harmonious, says the theologian, but evil is introduced into it by man because of the same free will. This conclusion underlies theodicies scholasticism theos- god and dike– law, justice) – the concept of justification of God. The will can be truly free, according to Augustine, if it does not accept evil, and this is possible only if it is directed towards God. It turns out that the will is free only in its free submission to divine grace. On the one hand, this is no longer freedom, and on the other, the principle of divine predestination clearly contradicts the principle of free will: if God foresees everything in advance, then he could not help but know that, having freedom, a person will use it unreasonably.

Augustine projects the blessed dualism of soul and body onto social life. People, according to Augustine, are divided into two kinds: those who live according to human principles and those who live according to the divine will. Therefore, two types of state arise: “secular city” and “city of God”. The first is the kingdom of darkness and sin, the second - light and good. The task of humanity is to build an earthly city modeled after the “city of God.” World history is interpreted by him as the result of divine providence(lat. providentia- providence). In his work “On the City of God” he gives a religious philosophy of history. But here, too, one can discern a philosophical meaning in solving the problem of divine predestination and human free will, which in the course of further development of philosophy will result in the problem of freedom and necessity. The idea of ​​the absence of predetermination of human actions and social development arose as an antipode to the idea of ​​providentialism. Therefore, when analyzing the basic concepts of the Middle Ages period, it is important to refer not only to apologetic(Greek apologetikos- defending) the provisions of the church fathers, but also to glimpses living thought that goes beyond the dogmas they proclaim. And in the works of theologians certain periods of history are analyzed, real facts and historical figures, formal logic is being honed, the opposition of which will be dialectical logic.

6. Medieval dialectics was not only a fundamental school logical thinking, but also played an important role in the development of natural science. Trying to understand nature, medieval thinkers saw in it a certain order, high perfection, which gave rise to the idea of ​​a goal-setting force. The image of nature as a book written by the hand of a creator will persist in subsequent eras, but another aspect will become dominant: the image of nature developing according to natural laws.

The opposition between science and religion, faith and knowledge, reason and revelation was also characteristic of the Middle Ages. Natural scientific thought developed quite fruitfully in the Middle Eastern countries. Thus, the Tajik experimental scientist Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in the X-XI centuries. and the Arab philosopher Ibn Rushd (Averroes) in the 12th century. they substantiated the objective existence of moving matter and the possibilities of its knowledge, opposed mysticism and superstition, and asserted the importance of only such science that has a practical orientation. Avicenna defended the principle of the unity of logical thinking and experience, philosophy and special sciences. Averroes, agreeing with his predecessor, advocated the emancipation of science. He formulated the theory of dual truth, according to which the truths of both science and religion have a right to exist because they have different fields of study. For the Middle Ages, this is a rather bold idea: science was declared independent of religion. He does not reject the idea of ​​God standing above the world, but rejects the idea of ​​matter created by God, affirming their “co-eternity” and mutual penetration.

The merit of these thinkers is their high assessment of human intelligence, the “universal mind,” which testifies to the continuity of the spiritual life of mankind.

The desire to appeal to reason and knowledge was characteristic of the late nominalists Roger Bacon and Duns Scotus (XIII - XIV centuries). D. Scotus considered thinking as a property of matter, forcing, in the words of Marx, “theology itself to preach materialism.” Bacon believed that the church prevented a person from thinking freely, forcing him to renounce the truth “in favor of God” and sought to find solid foundations of reliability in mathematics, physics and ethics. It was he who owned the saying: “Knowledge is power,” and he also believed that knowledge should be based on experience. This point of view was shared by William of Ockham (14th century), who proclaimed the idea of ​​radical empiricism and formulated the principle of simplicity of scientific knowledge.

Thus, already during the Middle Ages, the conviction in the omnipotence of reason, the need for it to gain freedom from the shackles of scholasticism matured, prospects for the development of science opened up, which became a reality in the upcoming Renaissance.

Introduction

Socio-historical, spiritual-cultural and philosophical background emergence medieval philosophy

2. Basic principles of philosophical medieval thinking

3. Ancient philosophy and Christianity: the problem of the relationship between reason and faith

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

The history of the Middle Ages begins with the fall of the Roman Empire. The transition from ancient civilization to the Middle Ages was due, firstly, to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire as a result of the general crisis of the slave-owning mode of production and the associated collapse of the entire ancient culture. Secondly, the Great Migration of Peoples (from the 4th to the 7th centuries), during which dozens of tribes rushed to conquer new lands. From 375 to 455 (the capture of Rome by the Vandals), the painful process of extinction continued greatest civilization.

The Western Roman Empire was unable to withstand the waves of barbarian invasions and ceased to exist in 476. As a result of barbarian conquests, dozens of barbarian kingdoms arose on its territory. The most important factor that determined the process of formation of European culture was Christianity. Christianity has become not only its spiritual basis, but also the integrating principle that allows us to talk about Western European culture as a single integral culture.

1.Socio-historical, spiritual-cultural and philosophical prerequisites for the emergence of medieval philosophy

The Middle Ages is a chronologically large and heterogeneous period, covering the 5th - 15th centuries, and medieval philosophy is a complex formation associated, on the one hand, with the main ideas of emerging Christianity, and on the other, with antiquity.

Christianity initially spread among Jews in Palestine and the countries of the Mediterranean basin, but already in the first decades of its existence it received a large number of followers from other nations.

In the second half of the 1st century and the first half of the 2nd century, Christianity represented a number of communities consisting of slaves, freedmen, and artisans. In the second half of the 2nd century, Christian writers already noted the presence of noble and wealthy people in the communities.

One of important elements The transition of Christianity to a fundamentally new level was its break with Judaism in the 2nd century. After this, the percentage of Jews in Christian communities began to steadily decrease. At the same time, Christians abandoned the Old Testament laws: observance of the Sabbath, circumcision, and strict dietary restrictions. Expansion of Christianity and involvement in Christian communities large quantity people of very different religions led to the fact that Christianity of this period was not one church, but a huge number of directions, groupings, theological schools.

Until the 5th century, the spread of Christianity occurred mainly within the geographical boundaries of the Roman Empire, as well as in its sphere of influence - Armenia, Ethiopia, and Syria. In the second half of the 1st millennium, Christianity spread among the Germanic and Slavic peoples, and later - in the 13th - 14th centuries - among the Baltic peoples. TO XIV century Christianity almost completely conquered Europe, and, from that time on, began to spread outside Europe, mainly due to colonial expansion and the activities of missionaries.

Worldview and life principles Early Christian communities were initially formed in opposition to the pagan world. However, as Christianity gained wider influence and distribution, and therefore began to need a rational justification for its dogmas, attempts appeared to use the teachings of ancient philosophers for this purpose. Of course, at the same time they were given a new interpretation.

The transition to a feudal social system was marked by a decline in the independent significance of philosophy. It was accompanied by the displacement of polytheism by monotheism - monotheism. Christianity became the dominant form of religion in Europe, according to which the world was created by one God. The triumph of Christianity was explained by the fact that it most fully corresponded to the social, political and cultural needs of feudal society. In the fight against the remnants of paganism (polytheism), Christianity needed a philosophical method of reasoning and proof, therefore it partly assimilated elements of ancient culture, science and philosophy, subordinating them, however, to justification and justification Christian religion. Philosophy became the handmaiden of theology for almost a millennium. Theologians placed in the center new painting the world of God and man as his creation. If the ancient worldview was characterized by cosmocentrism, then the medieval one was characterized by theocentrism.

The understanding of being in the Middle Ages found its aphoristic expression in the Latin formula: ens et bonum convertuntur (being and good are reversible). Since God is the highest being and good, then everything that is created by Him, to the extent that it bears the stamp of being, is also good and perfect. From this follows the thesis that evil in itself is non-existence, it is not a positive reality, it is not an essence. Thus, the devil, from the point of view of medieval consciousness, is non-existence pretending to be. Evil lives by good and at the expense of good, therefore, ultimately, good rules the world, and evil, although it diminishes good, is not able to destroy it. This teaching expressed the optimistic motive of the medieval worldview, distinguishing it from the mentality of the later Hellenistic philosophy, in particular from Stoicism and Epicureanism.

Thus, medieval thinking and worldview were determined by two different traditions: Christian revelation, on the one hand, and ancient philosophy, on the other. These two traditions, of course, were not so easy to reconcile with each other.

Medieval philosophy was characterized by a new approach to understanding nature and man. According to Christian dogma, God created the world out of nothing, created it by an act of his will, thanks to his omnipotence. Divine omnipotence continues to preserve and support the existence of the world. This worldview is called creationism (from the Latin word creatio, which means “creation”).

The dogma of creation shifts the center of gravity from the natural to the supernatural. Unlike ancient gods, which were, as it were, akin to nature, the Christian god stands above nature, on the other side of it. The active creative principle is, as it were, withdrawn from nature, from space and from man and transferred to God. In medieval philosophy, therefore, the cosmos is not a self-sufficient and eternal being, as many of the Greek philosophers considered it.

Christianity was the core of European culture and ensured the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. For a long time, historical and cultural literature was dominated by the view of the Middle Ages as " dark ages". The foundations of this position were laid by the Enlightenment. However, the cultural history of Western European society was not so clear, one thing is certain - the entire cultural life of Medieval Europe of this period was largely determined by Christianity, which already in the 4th century became persecuted state religion in the Roman Empire. From a movement in opposition to official Rome, Christianity turns into a spiritual, ideological support of the Roman state. At this time at the Ecumenical church councils a number of leading provisions of Christian doctrine - the creed - are adopted. These provisions are declared mandatory for all Christians. The basis of Christian teaching was the belief in the resurrection of Christ, resurrection of the dead, Divine Trinity. The concept of the Divine Trinity was interpreted as follows. God is one in all three persons: God the Father - the creator of the world, God the Son, Jesus Christ - the Redeemer of sins and God the Holy Spirit - were absolutely equal and coeternal with each other. Despite the strong discrepancy between the ideal and the real, the social and everyday life people in the Middle Ages was an attempt, a desire to embody Christian ideals in practical activities.

2.Basic principles of philosophical medieval thinking

Having formed in the classical era of antiquity as a regulator of all forms of spiritual development of reality, philosophy successfully performed the functions of broadcasting, storing and multiplying theoretical knowledge in the subsequent millennium.

Medieval philosophy put forward a galaxy outstanding philosophers: Augustine, Anselm, Abelard, Thomas Aquinas. But even against this background, the majestic figure of Jesus Christ stands out. Many consider him a great philosopher. This greatness is seen in the fact that he put forward a philosophy not for selected sages, but for everyone - even for people who are poor in spirit and children. Key Ideas philosophical significance contains the Bible. She compiles the Old and New Testaments. A covenant is a contract between God and the human race.

Basic principles of medieval philosophy:

The principle of monotheism means that God is one and unique, in contrast to ancient philosophy, where the diversity of gods was recognized - polytheism.

The principle of theocentrism means the central position of God. According to the principles of theocentrism, the source of all being, goodness and beauty was God (ancient philosophy was cosmocentric). Theocentrism, compared to cosmocentrism, enhances the personal principle.

The principle of creationism is the doctrine of the creation of the world by God from Nothing. In philosophy they do not believe that something can be made from nothing. In creationism, philosophers value the development of the idea of ​​creation, creativity. This philosophical idea A vibrant life is always ensured. Faith means “that which provides truth.” The Bible elevates faith over intellect (in antiquity, reason was reduced to intellect, which was considered hostile to faith). There are different faiths, including untenable ones. Every person believes; faith is a person’s personal self-determination, an integral part of his inner world. It was medieval philosophy that first developed the problem of faith. Good will- determination to accomplish what God wants. Only a person who has good will, is able to keep biblical covenants.

In antiquity, they believed that good is accomplished through the intellect and nothing more. Christianity opened the horizon of will. Ethics of duty, moral law - the law that God gives. Man is responsible before God. Christian ethics is an ethics of duty to God. In ancient philosophy it was believed that the moral law is the law of nature itself, which acts as virtue on the side of both God and man. Conscience is the knowledge that accompanies a person’s connection with God. The word “conscience” does not appear in the Old Testament, but in the New Testament it is used about thirty times. Old Testament was created before our era, and the New Testament - after. In this case, conscience is a new invention, thanks to which a person can discover his sinfulness, as well as ways to overcome it. The next idea is love. According to the Bible, God is love. He who does not love has not known God. The Apostle Paul highly valued all three main values ​​of Christianity - faith, hope, love, but he especially emphasized love. This is quite consistent with the Bible, where the symbol of love - the heart - is mentioned about a thousand times.

Christian love- this is a gift from God, the realization of conscience, it knows no exceptions: “love our enemies.” Hope is expectation, hope for the future, experiencing time. In antiquity, time was considered cyclical, repeating, but in medieval philosophy they denied cyclicality, believing that the birth, death and resurrection of Christ could not be repeated. The medieval concept of time is a transition to linear time, to progress. Time is not reduced to natural processes; it is embodied by hope and providence, an understanding of history as the implementation of a plan for the salvation of man, pre-provided by God. The Christian worldview is much more historical than the ancient one. In antiquity it was believed that a person has a body and a soul; in medieval philosophy they added another aspect - spirit or spirituality. Human spirituality is participation in the divine through faith, hope and love. Another idea of ​​medieval philosophy is symbolism.

The principle of symbolism is the ability to find hidden meaning. Two key symbolic episodes in the Bible are the Fall of Adam and Eve and the crucifixion of Christ. The sin of Adam and Eve determined the sinfulness of all their descendants. Adam's sin is imputed to all people. Adam symbolically represented all people. Accordingly, the crucifixion of Christ also has symbolic meaning, he replaced everyone. Symbolism was not alien to antiquity, but only in the Middle Ages did it become a widespread way of comprehending reality. Medieval people saw symbols everywhere. Thus, he learned to recognize relationships.

The principle of providentialism states that all world events, including history and the fate of individual people, are controlled by Divine Providence. The life of man and society is predetermined by God, the main goal is to understand this predestination.

The principle of eschatology is the doctrine of the ultimate destinies of the human person and all things.

Philosophical knowledge The Middle Ages are conventionally divided into several periods, the largest of which are patristics and scholasticism. In turn, each of them is divided into several different periods and directions.

Patristics is a set of theological and philosophical views of the “church fathers” who set out to substantiate Christianity, relying on ancient philosophy and, above all, on the ideas of Plato.

Scholasticism also strives to answer the central question of philosophical thought throughout the Middle Ages - the relationship between the truths of faith and reason.

3.Ancient philosophy and Christianity: the problem of the relationship between reason and faith

When we use concepts such as “ancient philosophy,” we are of course dealing with some conventions. Like everything in the world, “ancient philosophy” has its completion, its outcome in “medieval” philosophy. Actually here we're talking about not only about the chronological affiliation of philosophical thought, but about certain internal guidelines of the corresponding thought systems and their complexes. It is extremely important when considering the situation of a paradigm shift (and such a process is almost always tragic in nature, accompanied by painful phenomena in the life of society) to trace those aspects of thought that contributed to the further continuation philosophical process, continuity in the history of philosophy, even if at first glance no continuity is observed at all.

The transformation of ancient philosophy into medieval philosophy is integrally connected with the emergence of Christianity and with the transformation of its ideology into the dominant one. In this situation, being essentially an anti-system of Hellenistic values, Christianity could radically interrupt the development of philosophical thought (at least in the Western area of ​​civilization). However, this did not happen. When studying the history of philosophy, one cannot help but pay attention to this circumstance. This work will be devoted to an attempt to analyze those factors that influenced the continuation of philosophical development.

The Middle Ages were at the beginning of the path leading to understanding the relationship and interconnection of two existential spheres. It proposed its own model of their relationship, or more precisely, a number of models based on general premises, but leading to different conclusions. The main premise concerned the understanding of the meaning and purpose of human existence. Created in the image and likeness of God, man must strive to ensure that his soul becomes a temple in which God constantly dwells. Earthly life with her affairs and concerns, no matter how important and necessary they may seem to him, should not occupy a central place in a person’s life, should not absorb all his attention.

To be human means to live not only in the “horizontal” plane (among things and people), but primarily in the “vertical” dimension, constantly striving towards God, remembering him in both joy and sorrow, constantly feeling his presence. Therefore, the goal of man is communion with God and knowledge of God. All other moments of human existence, including knowledge of the world, must be subordinated to the tasks of knowledge of God and salvation of the soul. This is the initial thesis of Christian philosophy, shared by all (regardless of their belonging to one direction or another) thinkers Western European Middle Ages. Disagreements arose when discussing the question of whether it contributes to rational cognition advancement of a Christian along the path of knowledge of God, or, on the contrary, only distracts him from the search for saving truth. To some extent, it can be argued that the opposition of faith and reason is the opposition of Christianity and paganism, therefore the solution to this issue had great value for all Christian thought. At the same time, there was an awareness of the full power of ancient philosophy with its rationality, therefore, for Christianity, ancient philosophy acted in two aspects. Harsh criticism, since this is paganism and the temptation to go into heresy. An attempt to synthesize some ancient attitudes with Christian ones. Christianity learned to use the terminology and methodological guidelines of ancient philosophy for its own purposes: to clarify its own positions and to rationally prove Christian doctrine before criticism of the pagan world. Thus, the synthesis of Christian and pagan worldviews was related to the formation of a rational proof of Christian positions.

The relationship between reason and faith has always been the focus of religious philosophy. Reason is the ability to think universally, the ability of analysis, abstraction and generalization. Faith is the recognition of something as true.

The significance of revelation, direct divine insight, the path of faith. There were discussions among religious thinkers about the optimal strategy for combining the efforts of faith and reason. Even Augustine, who in the tradition of Christian Platonism emphasized the importance of divine insight in knowledge, believed that in comprehending the world a person inevitably initially relies on authority, which has its source in faith, but cannot limit itself to it and further uses the potential of reason. Thomas Aquinas proclaimed the thesis of the harmony of reason and faith, within the framework of which philosophy and theology are called upon to cooperate, but at the same time are not entirely reducible to each other.

Disagreements arose when discussing the question of whether rational knowledge contributes to the advancement of a Christian along the path of knowledge of God or, on the contrary, only distracts him from the search for saving truth. In the Western Middle Ages we can find two opposing answers to this question.

Conclusion

Medieval culture is the result of a complex, contradictory synthesis of ancient traditions, the culture of barbarian peoples and Christianity. However, the influence of these three principles of medieval culture on its character was not equal. The dominant feature of medieval culture was Christianity, which acted as a new ideological support for the worldview and worldview of a person of that era, which determined the formation of medieval culture as an integrity.

The philosophy of the Middle Ages is a commentary philosophy. The commentaries were mainly on the Holy Scriptures. Addressing sacred texts, philosophers did not analyze and criticize them, but interpreted them - the exegetical nature of the philosophy of the Middle Ages.

middle ages philosophy antique

Literature

.Abelard, P. Dialogue between a philosopher, a Jew and a Christian. P. Abelar. Anthology of world philosophy: in 4 volumes - M., 1969. - T. 1. - P. 803.

2.Augustine. Confession / Augustine // Anthology of world philosophy: in 4 volumes - M., 1969 - 1972. - Vol. 1. - Part 2. - P. 584-585.

.Balashov L. E. Philosophy: Textbook. 2nd edition, with changes and additions - M., 2005. - p. 672.

.Introduction to philosophy: Proc. manual for universities / Author. coll.: Frolov I.T. et al. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Republic, 2003. - 623 p.

5.Wundt, V. Introduction to Philosophy. - M: Dobrosvet LLP, 2001.

6.Tertullian, C. S. F. On the flesh of Christ / C. S. F. Tertullian // Selected Works. - M.: Progress, 1994. - P. 448.

7.Philosophy: lecture notes: textbook. allowance / V.O. Bernatsky; under general ed. N.P. Flywheel. - Omsk: Omsk State Technical University Publishing House, 2008. - 352 p.

8.Philosophy: Textbook. 2nd ed., revised. and additional Rep. editors: V.D. Gubin, T.Yu. Sidorina, V.P. Filatov. - M.: TON - Ostozhye, 2001. - 704 p.

9.#"justify">List of key concepts

Monotheism is monotheism.

Theocentrism - God is at the center of everything.

The Old Testament is the first, oldest of the two (along with the New Testament), part Christian Bible.

New Testament - the second part of the Bible - the New Testament - is a collection of 27 books written in the 1st century and extant in ancient Greek.

Transcendent is everything that goes beyond the limits of possible experience, for example, God, the immortality of the soul, etc.

Symbolism is the ability to find hidden meaning. Concepts built on the basis of the interpretation of the concept of symbol as the fundamental basis of the connection between being, thinking, personality and culture.

Creationism is the doctrine of the creation of the world by God from Nothing.

Providentialism - claims that all world events, including history and the fate of individual people, are controlled by Divine Providence.

Eschatology is the doctrine of the ultimate destinies of the human person and all things.

Faith is the recognition of something as true.

Reason is the ability to think universally, the ability of analysis, abstraction and generalization.

Tutoring

Need help studying a topic?

Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.

Middle Ages(V-XIV centuries), which replaced antiquity, are usually characterized as times of darkness and ignorance, barbarism and cruelty, apologetics religious worldview and the fight against dissent - the “dark ages” in human history. What has been said is only partly true. It cannot be ignored that the Middle Ages -

• period of formation of basic European countries, peoples and languages, numerous workshops and corporations of artisans;
• the period of the birth of the Romanesque style and Gothic, chivalric romance and troubadour poetry, heroic epic, Gregorian chant and icon painting;
• the period of the emergence of monastic and cathedral schools, as well as the first universities in Europe.

In fact, it was a rather controversial time, which had a significant impact on the subsequent development of Western European civilization and culture.
The main feature of the culture of the Middle Ages is dominance of religious Christian worldview. Christianity is formed in the 1st century AD. in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire and gradually spread to the Mediterranean, Western and Eastern Europe. Under his influence, spiritual culture acquires a pronounced religious character and is considered as a means of introducing a person to God and comprehending his essence.

A distinctive feature of medieval philosophy is theocentrism(from the Greek theos - god), according to which the reality that determines all things is not nature, the cosmos, as it was in ancient philosophy, but a supernatural principle - God. Ideas about the real existence of the supernatural lead to a new understanding of nature, man and the meaning of history. Philosophical thought, limited by religious views, merges with theology and comes down to the systematization of Christian doctrine and its rational and speculative justification. This leads to other features of medieval philosophical thought. First of all, - authoritarianism And dogmatism. Philosophical conclusions are based on dogmas prescribed by the Holy Scriptures (including the Bible), religious authorities, and partly the authorities of antiquity. Any innovations are considered as an “attack” on authority and are condemned. Anything that contradicts the teachings of the church is sharply criticized. Christian theologians focus their attention on the speculative analysis of concepts; their creative potential is realized in the sphere of formal logical proofs.
Medieval philosophy begins with the conscious subordination of knowledge to faith. Religious faith is interpreted as a universal way of human existence, a special ideological position of an individual. The human mind can express through concepts only what is already in faith; the truth is predetermined by Christian doctrine. Thus, in the Middle Ages, a new phenomenon emerged - philosophizing in faith, which laid the foundation for religious Christian philosophy.

The formation of medieval philosophy. Patristics

It should be taken into account that the foundations of Christian doctrine are set out in the Bible, the texts of which were compiled in three languages: Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. Starting from the 2nd century. The Bible is translated into Latin, which becomes the universal language of medieval culture. But the spread of Christianity during the early Middle Ages occurred against the backdrop of a decline in intellectual culture and education. The texts of the Bible were considered complex, and for most ignorant people they were simply inaccessible. There is a need to interpret the Bible, explain the foundations of the Christian worldview and justify it.
To solve these problems it was aimed patristics(from Latin pater - father) - the teaching of the “church fathers”, which is formed within the framework of a new social institution - the church. And if early patristics (II-III centuries) came down to the defense of Christianity, that’s why it is called that - apologetics(from the Greek apologia - protection), then later, in the IV-VIII centuries. representatives of patristics turn to the development of Christian dogma and its systematization. In patristics, the basic tenets of Christian doctrine are substantiated and developed:

• 1. Pagan polytheism is being replaced monotheism(from Greek monos - one, only; theos - god). Christianity recognizes the existence of one God: “The Lord our God...is one” [Deuteronomy. 6:4]. God is conceived as something transcendent, existing outside the world and above the world. The Church Fathers emphasize the need for faith in one God. At the same time, special attention is paid to the substantiation of the idea of ​​the trinity of God (the problem of trinitarianism) and disputes about the divine and human nature Jesus Christ (Christology).
• 2. Power Christian God is that he is the creator of the world - creationism(from Latin creatio - creation, creation), and constantly supports his creation: “I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end. First and last" [Rev. John the Theologian. 22:13]. This idea significantly distinguishes the Christian tradition from the Greek one, in which the world (cosmos) was thought of as uncreated, eternal. The problem of the beginning of the world and its creation “out of nothing” (ex nihilo) is one of the main ones in patristics.

Monotheism and creationism underlie the religious and philosophical doctrine of existence.

• 3. Christian anthropology comes from the biblical understanding of man as the image and likeness of God: “And God created man in His own image...” [Being. 1:27]. Hence the interest in the problems of the relationship between soul and body, free will and mind, God and man.
• 4. “Can you find God by research? Can you completely comprehend the Almighty? He is above the heavens - what can you do? Deeper than the underworld, what can you find out? [Book of Job. 11:7-8]. The questions posed in the Bible involve identifying the relationship between faith and reason, the limits of human cognitive capabilities. This topic takes important place in medieval philosophical thought.
• 5. Christianity is characterized by a new understanding of the historical process, according to which God gives meaning and purpose to history - providentialism(from Latin providentia - foresight). Of particular importance is the doctrine of the end of the world - eschatology(from the Greek eschatos - last, final; logos - teaching). In patristics, a teleological (from the Greek telos - goal) understanding of history is formed. It represents a single, natural process that has direction and purpose, and not repeating cycles, as was the case in antiquity.

One of the brightest representatives of Latin patristics Aurelius Augustine(354-430), whose views had a significant influence on the further development of religious philosophy, emphasizes that philosophy must present the teachings of the church in the form of a scientific system, substantiate and develop it: “About theology, which is called natural, one should conduct a conversation with not just any people..., and with philosophers, whose very name, if translated into Latin, indicates a love of wisdom; if wisdom is God, by whom all things were created, as divine authorities and truth affirm, then the true philosopher loves God.” He values ​​the philosophy of Plato and the Neoplatonists above others: “If pagan philosophers, especially Platonists, accidentally dropped truths that are useful for our faith, then these truths not only should not be avoided, but it is necessary to take them away from their illegal owners and use them for our benefit” [Quoted . According to the book: 4. P. 107]. Based on ancient thought, Augustine tries to harmonize faith and reason, divine truths and accumulated knowledge. This approach indicates that Augustine sees only a religious meaning in philosophy and does not distinguish between theology and philosophy.

Augustine Aurelius, according to many modern medieval researchers, laid the foundations of Christian philosophy. At the center of his thoughts are the problems of God, the world and man, faith and reason, eternity and time, divine grace and personal freedom, good and evil, the meaning of history. In the famous work “Confessions”, using the example of his life, Augustine showed the inconsistency of the formation of personality. Revealing the spiritual foundations of human existence, he comes to the conclusion about the need for divine grace, which saves the “weak soul” of man. The theme of moral progress was developed in the treatise “On the City of God.” “Earthly city” and “heavenly city” are a symbolic expression of two types of love: “love for oneself to the point of contempt for God” and “love for God to the point of contempt for oneself.” The goal of history, according to Augustine, will be fulfilled in the heavenly city, when man reaches moral perfection, the state of “impossibility of sinning.”
The perception of Greco-Roman philosophy by Christian theologians was quite contradictory. Without denying the idea of ​​continuity, they, as a rule, turned only to late antique (Hellenistic) philosophy, which underwent significant changes under the influence of emerging Christianity. The mastery of the classical philosophical heritage of Plato and Aristotle was fragmentary. Often, familiarity with the views of the ancients was mediated by later teachings, which quoted and interpreted the classics. Thus, Plato was studied through the Neoplatonists, who significantly changed his doctrine of ideas and considered the One as the origin of all that exists. As for Aristotle, his main philosophical works became known in the West only in the 12th century, translated from Arabic and commentaries by Arab thinkers, and before that time in Latin language Only his logical treatises were translated. Under these conditions, not only a systematic distortion of the views of ancient Greek thinkers occurs, but - and this is the main thing - the ancient way and style of thinking changes. Understanding philosophy as a tool for explaining “divine truths”, as a “god-pleasing and honorable activity”, a representative of Greek patristics John of Damascus(673/76-777) emphasizes: “...Philosophy is the love of wisdom, but true wisdom is God. Therefore, love for God is true philosophy." For John of Damascus, like many other theologians of this period, “philosophy is the handmaiden of theology”: just as the queen uses the services of slaves, so theology uses philosophical teachings.
The affirmation of the idea “philosophy is the handmaiden of theology” leads to the fact that ancient thought is adapted to the needs of Christianity. The views of the Neoplatonists on the first principle (the One) as the principle of being, Plato’s teaching on the immortality of the soul, the dualistic understanding of man, according to which the body is opposed to the soul as the lower to the higher, formed the basis of the Christian understanding of God and man. These views also contributed to solving the problem of the relationship between the finite foundations of existence and its visible manifestations and to the establishment of the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul. The teaching of the Stoics about the divine Logos helped explain the world-creative and world-ruling role of God the creator, and their moral and ethical views with the ideal of a spiritually free person, meekly enduring the blows of fate, restraining passions, capable of love and forgiveness, corresponded Christian understanding person. In the Middle Ages, Greco-Roman philosophy became the basis of religious and philosophical reflection.

The main problems of medieval scholasticism