Which Roman emperor brutally persecuted Christians. Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire: postulates, faith, discontent, political and social causes, history and periods of persecution and persecution

Why did the tolerant empire oppress and torture Christians? How did the laws of the “first legal state” contribute to this? And how did Christians manage to survive the period of persecution? The lecture is delivered by Alexander Dvorkin, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in the history of the Middle Ages.

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Hello, my name is Alexander Leonidovich Dvorkin, I am a professor at St. Tikhon Orthodox Humanitarian University, where I teach two completely different subjects: church history and sect studies. I have a PhD in Medieval History from Fordham University, located in New York City, in the same state as New York, where I defended my doctoral thesis under Protopresbyter Father John Meyendorff. The topic of our lecture, it is twofold, on the one hand, it is the persecution of Christianity in the Roman Empire and how Christianity managed to survive and conquer the Roman Empire, and the second topic is so controversial in modern world a figure like Emperor Constantine, whom in the Orthodox Church we consider a saint, we recognize as equal to the apostles, while he is among many Protestant theologians and historians, and even more so modern sectarian writers, is one of the most hated figures.

Let's start with the Roman Empire, starting with the well-known fact that Christianity originated in the Roman Empire, in its eastern province of Judea, but quickly spread throughout the empire. Here is a map of the Roman Empire of the second century, in the first century, when Christianity appeared, it looked a little different, but, in principle, it was not much different. That is, all these vast territories around the Mediterranean Sea, most of Western Europe, the Balkan Peninsula, the peninsula of Asia Minor - all this belonged to the Roman Empire, even in the second century, during the period of greatest distribution, it reached the Persian Gulf. But let's just say it didn't last long. But in general it is, so to speak, the basis of European civilization. This is the western and eastern Mediterranean.

Of course, it is difficult for us now to imagine how vast this territory is, since now how much is it to fly from end to end, two, two and a half hours? Then ... now we measure our distances in hours, how long it takes to fly from end to end, how much to get from end to end, and then distances were measured in weeks or months. How much to get. Because the bulk of travel was either on foot, because pack animals were expensive, only fairly rich people could use them, and so, if there were pack animals, they were usually loaded various subjects, various cargo, people still walked. And, of course, these were extremely long and dangerous journeys, most of the people never saw beyond the horizon around the place where they lived. But nevertheless, the idea that they live in the most civilized part of the world, in the universe, in fact, Oikumene, Oikumene is a Greek word, the universe is where the inhabited world is. Outside the universe live wild people, barbarians who do not belong to the universe. And the second way to travel is by sea, the whole empire is around the Mediterranean, the Mediterranean is the inland lake of the Roman Empire, this is, of course, a faster way of traveling, and, let's say, was considered more comfortable, although, of course, it is difficult for us to imagine all the comforts of this trip, I compare all the time, you fly on an airplane for nine hours, especially if the plane is overloaded, and you are squeezed so that after 9 hours you get up, and here it hurts, and there it hurts. And if we imagine that the area of ​​an average ship in the time of the Apostle Paul is about the same as the area of ​​an average aircraft. The plane has a load of 200 people, and the load of the ship ... it is only shorter and wider, and the area is the same. If the loading of the aircraft is 200 people, then the loading of the ship is 500 people. And the middle way, let's say, how the apostle Paul traveled from the shores of Palestine to Rome, but it's like luck, depends on the winds and things, but on average from six weeks and beyond. Six weeks is very fast, yes. Further up to eight, ten weeks. People are stuffed, they shake, they are shaken, and when people are shaken, they feel bad, and, since they are stuffed with people, it is bad for a neighbor, rotten food, rotten water. You can imagine all the comforts of this trip. Plus, of course, the tickets are very expensive. Therefore, people traveled little.

Now, of course, we have a lot of pilgrimage trips, they invite us “in the footsteps of the Apostle Paul”, it depicts how the Apostle Paul cheerfully taps with a stick, they say, comfortable air-conditioned buses. In fact, of course, everything was not like that, because when you walk along these famous Roman roads, and when there are several days of travel between settlements, it’s hot and cold, and you have to carry everything on yourself, and some food, and some water, and some blanket, and a change of clothes. And when you come to an inn, it's just that the yard in which best case you will get an armful of straw on which to spread your clothes to sleep on, plus robbers, plus wild animals, and so on. That is, in general, these are completely different conditions.

It must be said that the Roman Empire was a unique state. It was a unique state, because for the first time these territories were united together. Indeed, the Roman Empire was a civilized state. It was a legal state in which there were laws, laws were respected. More or less, of course, but still more than in any other states before him, or in those states that existed in the neighborhood. Basically, of course, we are talking about the Persian Empire, it was Persian, then Parthian, then again Persian, for simplicity I will call Persian, which was the main geopolitical rival of the Roman Empire, and, in fact, the only civilized, although a completely different civilization, state on its borders. Everything else - it was the barbarian tribes around the rest of the perimeter. And, as the empire expanded, it civilized them, and there was such an idea of ​​the civilization of these barbarian tribes, that is, they were included in the universe, they were included in a single space and joined the Romanitas. It is very difficult to translate, Romanity, a kind of Romanity, which meant both a higher civilization and a higher culture. This term lasted a very long time, that is, in the early and middle Middle Ages, everyone understood that there was this romanitas, which, however, began to unite with Christianity, but this is the highest culture, to which all the surrounding tribes and peoples aspired.

Okay. Of course, everyone knows about the strength of the Roman legions that conquered all these spaces. And, of course, the Romans were proud of their legions and believed that, indeed, it was very important that they had invincible legions. But, nevertheless, they believed that they conquered the world not simply due to the strength of their legions, and their legions are strong because the Romans are especially pious. Because our empire, it honors all the gods. Indeed, the Roman Empire was a remarkably tolerant empire. It was a pagan empire, and there were all kinds of cults. All the peoples that the Roman Empire conquered, you see, provinces are indicated here, they were once some kind of local peoples who had their own states, they all, of course, had their own gods. The Romans revered absolutely all the gods, they believed that if some local gods allowed their territory to be conquered, then these gods favored them. And they favor for them, the Romans, a special piety. Therefore, of course, all local gods must be revered. Under no circumstances should you quarrel with them. What for? They helped us, they will be offended, and they subjugated their people, whom they patronize, to us, which means that these gods are for us. Therefore, all local deities were encouraged, everywhere the Romans supported local pagan cults. They even helped build local temples, they facilitated pilgrimages, and so on. There was, the only law in Rome itself, that in Rome it was not allowed to erect temples to the gods of other peoples. Because we have Rome, we have Roman gods. But it is interesting that this law ceased to be respected very quickly. It remained, but was not observed, because representatives of other peoples came to Rome, if translated into modern language, there were permanent missions, permanent missions of other peoples who lobbied for their interests, respectively, they prayed to their gods at home, temples gradually appeared, and insofar as all these peoples belonged again to the empire, in general this was tolerated. And many Romans became interested in Eastern religions, and this was also quite allowed. Paganism, one might say, was the state religion for the Roman Empire with its inclusivism, paganism is characterized by inclusivism, that is, they include more and more gods, deities, each of which is responsible for something. Because paganism deifies absolutely everything, that is, there are gods of peoples, and gods of some geographical places: the god of the mountain, the god of the stream, the god of the forest, and so on, the gods of various human states: love, war, peace, natural phenomena: lightning , storms, seas, and so on. It was all deified, and with all the gods it was necessary to support a good relationship, well, just in case, make sacrifices to them. Accordingly, they respond favorably.

Those criteria that were in the Roman Empire for the recognition of any religion that exists on its territory, these are, say, two and a half criteria. First, religion must be ancient. This is very important, because for the Romans, for the Roman consciousness, antiquity was synonymous with truth. If something has lasted a long time, then it is true. Therefore, in Rome there were a lot of completely absurd rites, but they were ancient, and they had to be observed. One example, quite anecdotal, but at the same time very characteristic. In Rome, once a year they held a holiday, they recalled how, then, little Rome was saved from the invasion of wild Gauls. Well, everyone knows the saying, how Rome was saved by the geese, when the dogs overslept and the geese cackled, respectively, all the defenders woke up and recaptured the Gauls. Since then, in the temple of Jupiter's wife Juno there were sacred geese that lived there, they were fed, they lived in contentment and died a natural death. Once a year they were taken to the Capitol, where a dog was crucified, in retribution for those dogs that overslept. And the geese were carried out on golden pillows so that they would enjoy the death of a dog. There was such a custom, it was not ancient, and it was strictly observed.

That is, the first, the religion had to be ancient, the second, the religion had to be popular. That is, it belongs to and patronizes some people. This is also very important. And the third criterion, or, say, half of the criterion, I said, two and a half, is this very inclusivism. That is, everyone should recognize everyone. No one can reject any religion. That is, no one was forced to worship anyone, if you don’t want to, you don’t have to. But don't reject. And in this sense, the religious tolerance of the Roman Empire extended to the point that a person, in principle, did not have to believe in gods. That is, if you don’t want to, don’t believe, but observe the public ritual. All meaning and all power is in observance, so that everything goes as usual. Follow the rite. Once a year there is a feast, come to the feast, make a sacrifice, that's all right. Before you start the solemn meal, pour some wine to the gods, everything is in order. At the same time, intellectuals, philosophers could laugh among themselves at various pagan tales about the adventures of the gods, argue that there are no gods, as much as you like. But it’s you who do what you want among yourselves, the main thing is that everything goes as it should, because then it gives the well-being of the empire, and then we Romans are especially pious. Piety was understood exclusively as external actions.

Of course, with this very third half-point there was a problem with the Jewish cult. because the Jews ... Yes, of course, the religion was ancient, undeniably, the religion was popular, but they did not recognize any other gods. This was a serious problem. But the Romans quickly learned that the Jews are a hard-hearted, hard-headed people, so it’s better not to mess with them, because there will be no good. Plus, of course, if you look here, Judea is located on the eastern border, just on the border with the main geopolitical rival - the Persian Empire. If anything, they start to rebel, respectively, such a very delicate geopolitical situation in the East will be violated, and, accordingly, this will also lead to nothing good. Plus, the Jewish customs were considered dirty, very unaesthetic, this circumcision, then very stupid, because they don't eat so many different delicious foods that everyone loves, pork, oysters especially. As for oysters, the Romans had a special passion, everyone loved oysters very much, all the rich kept their oyster cages ... Well, antisocial, because again they did not participate in all social events. So, okay, let the Jews exist, because few people will ever agree with such an unpleasant religion, agree to deal with them. Therefore, they were more or less left alone, there was such a compromise that a sacrifice was made daily in the temple for the health of the emperor, and on this, more or less, they agreed.

And in this empire appeared Christianity. As we know, Christianity appeared in Judea, and for the first two or three decades it existed mainly on the territory of Judea, where there were quite fierce disputes, but the Romans still did not distinguish Christianity from the religions of the Jews, and, accordingly, perceived this as an intra-Jewish dispute, in who better not get involved. True, Suetonius writes that in 51 the emperor Claudius expelled the Jews from Rome because of disputes about some Chrestus, Suetonius believed that this was some kind of Jewish leader who was in Rome, that is, it is obvious that this is connected with the the first preaching of Christianity in Rome. Obviously, Suetonius believed that these were deeply Jewish disputes that were of no interest to anyone, since disputes, therefore, interfere with public order, then the emperor Claudius, the divine Claudius, as he called him, quite reasonably drove them out of the city.

Who founded the Roman Church, we do not know. That is, there is a generally accepted point of view that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, this is not true. Peter was never a Roman bishop. Firstly, Peter was an apostle, an apostle and a bishop are completely different callings, different ministries, and secondly, the Roman church was founded long before Peter arrived there, even long before the arrival of the apostle Paul. The Apostle Paul writes his “Epistle to the Romans”, when he was first taken to Rome for trial by the emperor Nero, the Roman church already exists, in fact. That is, obviously, it was founded by some apostle of the seventy, but which one is unknown. The first Roman bishop was Lin, we know this from St. Irenaeus of Leon. And, in fact, the first persecution of Christians takes place in Rome in 64. In 64, a fire breaks out in Rome, the emperor Nero really set it on fire, or not, most likely, he didn’t set it on fire, but in any case, rumors spread that he did it. He needed to find some kind of scapegoat, and the decision was made to blame the Christians for this. What this shows is that by the year 64 the Christians in Rome were well known enough to be distinguished from the Jews by the Romans. That is, between the year 51 and 64, 13 years, so for these 13 years ... Firstly, it is known that they returned to Rome again after a brief exile by Claudius, and then the Christians are already quite well known.

Probably, more and more people know about this persecution from Sienkiewicz’s book “Kamo are coming”, where almost everything is not true, because this book was written after the first Vatican Cathedral, and, accordingly, all the theology of the first Vatican Council, papal infallibility and other things that appear there ... It is clear that in 64 there were no catacombs, and Christians never hid in any catacombs. The catacombs appeared, the first underground cemetery called “catacombas” was acquired by the Roman church at the end of the 2nd century by Pope Damas, and it was acquired not to hide, but simply to have its own cemetery where to bury their people. In any case, the first persecution, here I said that the Roman Empire was rule of law. But this first persecution was absolutely lawless. And everyone recognized this: Tacitus, who later wrote his “History”, wrote about Neronian persecutions, Tacitus did not like Christians, he said that this is a very harmful superstition, which, of course, deserves the most severe punishment, but punishment should be according to the law. That is, there must be a trial, there must be a sentence, and so on. Nero's persecution was completely arbitrary, the Christians were simply accused. Apparently, several thousand people were killed, the most cruel punishments that could come to the inflamed imagination of Nero. People were given to be torn to pieces by wild beasts in the circus arena, people were set on fire, they set fire to live torches, they were executed in different ways, but for all the cruelty of this persecution, it was, firstly, very short, and secondly, it was limited to Rome and its immediate environs. Outside these limits, Christians were not touched. It can be said that this is Tertullian's expression that for the first few centuries Christianity existed under the cover of Judaism. And there were local Jewish persecutions, but they were also localized, and insofar as the Jews also did not have the opportunity and legal law to execute, they were not like that, that is, of course, there were victims, but there were quite a few of them. So the question was how long it would last.

The legal basis for the persecution was given by the emperor Troyan. Troyan ruled from 98 to 117, Troyan was a representative of the Antonine dynasty. Antonina is the second century after the Nativity of Christ, and this is just the maximum expansion of the Roman Empire, this is the heyday of the Roman Empire, when the borders are far away, the sea is cleared of pirates, the roads are calm, the economy is thriving, taxes are quite low, the emperors of Antonina all turned out to be very skillful administrators, capable generals, and according to Roman concepts, they were, let's say, not very cruel and quite nice people. Well, of course, “nice people” is such a relative question, but in comparison with many others it is much better. In general, the rulers are very good, the empire prospered. It was under them that persecution began, and a legal framework was created.

In general, such a paradoxical thing turned out: the worse the emperor was, the less he cared about Christians, he had some other problems. And when the emperor is good, who delves into all the details of government, then he, in fact, also pays attention to Christians. The beginning of the persecution, that is, the legal basis for the persecution, was created by Troyan during his correspondence with his friend Pliny Secundus, who is better known as Pliny the Younger. Troyan appointed him the governor of Bithynia, Bithynia is a region in Asia Minor, a very rich agricultural region, and, in general, he gave him such a fat governorship for his friend. But Pliny turned out to be such a very conscientious and active governor, he arrived, began to delve into all local customs, the economy, how everything works, so that taxes are paid correctly. And then he ran into the problem that taxes dropped very much, because the meat trade was in question. The point is that many pagan temples they traded animal meat, because animals were brought to the temple, sacrificed there. How they are sacrificed, of course, the entrails and fat are burned to the gods, something goes to the priests, and most of it is sold to the population. People come to the temple like a meat market and buy meat for themselves. So, in Bithynia at the beginning of the 2nd century there were such a significant number of Christians that the meat was not sold. Since Christians did not purchase meat sacrificed to idols, at temples, of course, since meat is carried in sacrifice, it is sacrificial, and meat is an illiquid commodity that quickly deteriorates, you can’t sell it today - tomorrow it’s all over. Accordingly, meat sales suffered, taxes to the treasury decreased significantly. Pliny began to understand, several Christians were arrested, someone was tortured, someone was executed, but he could not figure out what to do with it. He writes a long detailed letter about this to his friend Emperor Troyan asking what to do. Because, he says, there are various rumors about Christians that they gather for some kind of orgies at night, that they practice incest, this rumor comes, obviously, from the fact that Christians called each other “brothers” and “sisters”, which they engage in cannibalism, this is, of course, rumors of communion. And, of course, atheists, because they do not recognize the gods. Accordingly, “what to do with them? I arrested several, tortured several, they admitted that they are Christians, but they assure that they did nothing wrong, that they gathered at night, ate the most ordinary food, prayed for the authorities and for the emperor. There were a few people who said they were Christians and then left it, but even they couldn't say anything bad. And how to act, how to treat denunciations, because people send denunciations, how to deal with those people who were Christians, but have ceased to be Christians, how to deal with those who persist in their harmful delusion? Etc. Troyan answered shortly enough, he was somehow not very interested in all this. He said that certainly those who insist on their harmful delusion should be put to death if they refuse it, and even if there is a suspicion that they were Christians, and now they are not, and confirm this by a sacrifice to our gods, then then let them go. And don't listen to anonymous denunciations. That is, the official letter of the emperor is the law. That is, in other words, the emperor Troyan recognized that the very belonging to Christianity should be punishable by death. Yes, despite the fact that one does not listen to anonymous denunciations, but still belonging itself ... That is, you, Christians, should not exist.

Here I must clarify something about Roman law. The fact is that in Rome there was no post of public prosecutor. That is, the state did not initiate criminal cases. In order for a criminal case to be initiated, a person was needed who would file an application or denunciation. Troyan banned anonymous denunciations of Christians, he said not to pay attention to anonymous denunciations. The problem with a non-anonymous denunciation was that if you accuse a person of a crime, and the investigation of this crime does not confirm, then the scammer is entitled to the same execution that is due for this crime. That is, if I just want to move the fence 2 meters into my neighbor’s territory and decide that it’s good to do this by writing a denunciation against him that he is a Christian, then I take a very big risk. Not twice as much, the same, yes. To write a deliberately false denunciation against him, I take a very big risk, I risk quite seriously. And even if, suppose, I really suspect that he is a Christian, what if he refuses? And then what? That is, in general, this law of the Trojans, it allowed Christianity to exist.

Denunciations, whether they are or not, they have always been, but the whole horror of this situation was that when a person, when he was baptized, he actually settled on death row, from which he could be called at any moment. And then he had to answer the most important question of his life. Either say that he is with Christ and die in Christ, or deny Christ and remain in this world, but remain without Christ in eternal life.

And here we see that just the criteria that were presented to permitted religions did not correspond to Christianity at all. Christianity from the Roman point of view was not at all ancient, because the Jews had already tried to prove that it was not ancient, it was an innovation that has nothing to do with us. It was not popular, because Christians addressed all peoples and preached among all peoples. And, of course, Christianity recognized only Christ; Christians could not worship anyone else. And then, of course, there was a very large work of apologists, the next generation of theologians who wrote their apologies, that is, defensive appeals to the senate, to the emperor, to public opinion, proved that Christianity is quite worthy of being recognized as a permitted religion in the Roman Empire that Christians do not deserve to be executed, that Christians dispelled rumors about some kind of indecency that is happening among Christians, they explained that Christians pray for the existing authorities, that they are respectable citizens, that they do not deserve any execution. They argued that Christianity is ancient religion, is the main continuation of the Old Testament, their adopted children, New Israel, and so on. All this was. And the further, the more complicated the apologies became, because these wild rumors receded into the past, and already serious philosophers objected to Christianity, they began to study Christian doctrine to object on a philosophical level, and the apologies also became more and more philosophical and complex.

But the persecution continued. It was also important for the early church to develop its own attitude towards martyrdom. And, of course, a few words must be said about what martyrdom means in the Christian sense. Because the problem with martyrdom is that this word is not translated into Russian correctly. The Greek word "martis" means "witness". We simply translated it as “martyr”, so the whole emphasis is on torment. And often people even use, they say, he is sick, he suffers such pain, he is a martyr. Or there her husband drinks, she endures, here she is a martyr. It's just that the word "martyr" is confused with the word "sufferer". because main point is a "witness". Even in modern Greek a witness in court is called “martis”. A martyr is a witness of Christ, who testifies of Christ in any circumstances, including even before the threat of death.

Interestingly, perhaps the most famous among the apologists is St. Justin, a philosopher who lived in the 2nd century and was a student of St. Polycarp of Smyrna, who, in turn, was a student of John the Theologian, that is, this is still very close to the apostles. Justin is a philosopher, this is one, if translated into modern realities, this is a professor of philosophy. That is, he graduated from a special philosophical school and received a doctoral degree, this is a pallium, such a special cloak, in the modern covalent (?) It is like a doctoral degree, a pallium, which gave him the right to establish his own philosophical school. All his life, all his youth, he was looking for true philosophy, until he met Polycarp of Smyrna, who told him about Christianity, and Justin the philosopher realized that Christianity is true philosophy. Then he also died a martyr's death, he was executed by the emperor from the Antonin dynasty, Marcus Aurelius, who was also a philosopher. That is, the philosopher executed the philosopher. Justin the Martyr, Justin the Philosopher, has an amazing prosaic explanation of martyrdom. He says, “We have a commandment against false witness. We cannot bear false witness. Therefore, when we are asked, we say that we are Christians.” That is, it is very important, you understand, no exaltation, no theatricality and other things, but such an emphatically mundane explanation. Because, to be honest, in the early church there were also some exalted people who died cursing their tormentors. And when there is such evidence at the cost of their lives, it was very important for the church to decide how to relate to this. And, in general, according to some kind of unspoken consensus, the martyrdom of Polycarp of Smyrna was recognized as a model that was customary to imitate.

Polycarp of Smyrna is the teacher of Justin the philosopher. He was already a very old man, he was the bishop of the city of Smyrna, this is here, in Asia Minor, the Aegean coast, this is now in Turkey, called Izmir. And there were persecutions, they came for him, he was 87 years old, he was a very old man. His flock convinced him to take refuge in a country estate. He left, but the search continued, a denunciation was received against him, and in the end the police found him. She came and started knocking on the door. The disciples of Polycarp, who were nearby, said: “We can delay them, leave through the back door,” to which he said: “No, I already left once, now I will not leave again.” He opened the door for the guards, greeted them, they said they had come for him. He asked them for a little time to pray, they gave him that time. He prayed, then went with them into the city.

The trial took place in the circus arena, where the local crowd chanted: “Death to Polycarp, death to Polycarp!” He was interrogated by the proconsul himself, the governor, that is. The governor interrogated him, it is interesting that the governor was very disposed towards him. And he offered him such a compromise, he said: “You know, you are already an old man, I don’t want to execute you, come on, you say“ Death to the godless ”, and we will end it with you.” Such a compromise was proposed because Christians were called atheists. It is clear that Polycarp of Smyrna could mentally call someone else atheists, and it seems that both the wolves are full and the sheep are safe. But Polycarp said that he could not do this, because the people would understand that he had renounced, he could not renounce in any way. Well, then, actually, the governor followed the protocol, said, "You have to recant, we have instruments for torture." He said: “Do what you have to do, but Jesus Christ has been my good master all 87 years of my life, why do you want me to deny Him after 87 years? If you're not clear, I'm a Christian." And Saint Polycarp of Smyrna was executed in the circus arena. This, we see, is very calm and sober look. That is, when the flock asked him, he went into hiding, but did not hide much. And during the interrogation, he fully defended himself according to the law, but he did not cross the extreme line, and, most importantly, again, absolute truthfulness and absolute sobriety.

This is very important, and, in fact, it was finally accepted that martyrdom should not be asked for, but martyrdom should not be refused either. It's such a basic principle. In the end, the church, with difficulty, but decided that those who provoke martyrdom are provocateurs, they are not martyrs, not witnesses of Christ. Interestingly, this was adopted largely by the thought of other people, because if I provoke martyrdom, I make some person execute himself. I force him to become a murderer of Christians, that is, I lead him into a terrible sin. This is also wrong.

This situation with such persecution continued until 250, when Emperor Decius came to power. The third century is already different, the second century is a century of prosperity, in the third century problems began, because this is a century of coups, one coup after another, military emperors came to power, who brought with them legions that supported them. The legions were mostly stationed along the frontiers. It turned out such a vicious circle: the emperor came to Rome, brought legions with him, part of the border was exposed, barbarian raids broke through it. As a result, there was discontent, the emperor was overthrown, a new general came, with his legions, broke through in another place, and all this without end, the farther, the worse. Emperor Decius, who was also a military general, he began to think what the problem was, and decided that the problem was Christians. Because Christians don't believe in gods. We used to be pious, and everything was fine, but now we are atheists, the gods prevent us. He was the first to start a mass persecution of Christians. The state took the lead. Namely, he demanded from every citizen of the empire to make a sacrifice to the genius of the emperor, to come to a public place and in front of the statue of the emperor, but who does not need to be cut, an absolute trifle, just throw a few eyes of incense on the brazier or pour a little wine, and for this you get a certificate, libelos. With this certificate, you can make some civil transactions. This is what is written in the "Book of Revelations" of John the Evangelist. The number 666, about which everyone talks about what it is, is a reference, without which you can neither buy nor sell, that he bowed to the genius of the emperor, renounced Christ. The persecution thus reached a new level. Decius, however, died very quickly, this caused a number of problems, because quite a lot of people fell away because of this totality of persecution. But the Church was gradually restored, and the emperor Diakletian launched the next round of persecution, and this process will lead to the power of the emperor Constantine, which will be discussed in part 2.

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The state was on the verge of a socio-economic crisis. Previously, all internal difficulties were solved at the expense of weaker neighbors. In order to exploit the labor of other people, it was necessary to capture prisoners and turn them into forced laborers. Now, however, ancient society has become unified, and there were not enough funds to seize the barbarian territories. The situation threatened stagnation in the production of goods. The slave-owning system imposed restrictions on the further development of farms, but the owners were not ready to abandon the use of forced labor. It was no longer possible to increase the productivity of the slaves; large landowning farms disintegrated.

All sections of society felt hopeless, they felt confused in the face of such global difficulties. People began to look for support in religion.

Of course, the state tried to help its citizens. The rulers sought to create a cult of their own personality, but the very artificiality of this faith and its obvious political orientation doomed their efforts to failure. The obsolete pagan faith was also not enough.

I would like to note in the introduction (the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire will be discussed later) that Christianity brought with it the belief in a superman who would share with the people all their suffering. However, religion had three long centuries of hard struggle ahead, which ended for Christianity not only in its recognition as a permitted religion, but as the official faith of the Roman Empire.

Reasons for the persecution of Christians

Researchers identify different reasons for the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Most often they talk about the incompatibility of the worldview of Christianity and the traditions adopted in Roman society. Christians were considered offenders to majesty and followers of a forbidden religion. Meetings held in secret after sunset seemed unacceptable. holy books, in which, according to the Romans, the secrets of healing and exorcism of demons were recorded, some ceremonies.

Orthodox historian V.V. Bolotov puts forward his own version, noting that in the Roman Empire the church was always subordinate to the emperor, and religion itself was only a part of the state system. Bolotov comes to the conclusion that the difference in the postulates of the Christian and pagan religions caused their confrontation, but since paganism did not have an organized church, Christianity found itself an enemy in the person of the whole Empire.

How did Roman citizens see Christians?

In many ways, the reason for the difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire lay in the biased attitude of Roman citizens towards them. All the inhabitants of the empire were hostile: from the lower strata to the state elite. A huge role in shaping the views of Christians in the Roman Empire was played by all sorts of prejudices and slander.

To understand the depth of misunderstanding between Christians and Romans, one should refer to the treatise "Octavius" early Christian apologist, Minucia Felix. In it, the author's interlocutor Caecilius repeats the traditional accusations against Christianity: the inconsistency of faith, the lack of moral principles and the threat to the culture of Rome. Caecilius calls "double folly" the belief in the rebirth of the soul, and the Christians themselves - "mute in society, talkative in their shelters."

The formation of Christianity

In the first time after the death of Jesus Christ, there were almost no Christians on the territory of the state. Surprisingly, the very essence of the Roman Empire helped the religion spread rapidly. The good quality of roads and strict social separation led to the fact that already in the 2nd century, almost every Roman city had its own Christian community. It was not an accidental association, but a real union: its members helped each other in word and deed, and it was possible to receive benefits from the common funds. Most often, the early Christians of the Roman Empire gathered for prayer in secret places, such as caves and catacombs. Soon the traditional symbols of Christianity also took shape: a vine of grapes, a fish, a crossed monogram from the first letters of the name of Christ.

periodization

The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire continued from the beginning of the first millennium until the Edict of Milan was issued in 313. In the Christian tradition, it is customary to count them by ten, based on the treatise of the rhetoric Lactantius "On the deaths of the persecutors." However, it should be noted that such a division is conditional: there were less than ten specially organized persecutions, and the number of random persecutions far exceeds ten.

Persecution of Christians under Nero

The persecutions that took place under the leadership of this emperor amaze the consciousness with their immeasurable cruelty. Christians were sewn into the skins of wild animals and given to be torn to pieces by dogs, dressed in clothes soaked in resin and set on fire so that the "infidels" would illuminate Nero's feasts. But such ruthlessness only strengthened the spirit of Christian unity.

Martyrs Paul and Peter

On July 12 (June 29), Christians around the world celebrate the day of Peter and Paul. The Day of Remembrance of the Holy Apostles, who died at the hands of Nero, was celebrated even in the Roman Empire.

Paul and Peter were engaged in preaching, and although they always worked far from each other, they were destined to die together. The emperor greatly disliked the "apostle to the Gentiles", and his hatred only grew stronger when he learned that during his first arrest, Paul converted many courtiers to his faith. The next time, Nero strengthened the guard. The ruler passionately desired to kill Paul at the first opportunity, but at the trial the speech of the supreme apostle so impressed him that he decided to postpone the execution.

The apostle Paul was a citizen of Rome, so he was not tortured. The execution took place in secret. The emperor was afraid that with his masculinity and steadfastness he would convert those who saw this to Christianity. However, even the executioners themselves listened attentively to Paul's words and were amazed at the fortitude of his spirit.

The Holy Tradition says that the Apostle Peter, together with Simon Magus, who was also known for his ability to resurrect the dead, was invited by a woman to the burial of her son. To uncover the deception of Simon, whom many in the city believed to be God, Peter brought the young man back to life.

Nero's anger turned on Peter after he converted two of the emperor's wives to Christianity. The ruler ordered the execution of the supreme apostle. At the request of the believers, Peter decided to leave Rome in order to avoid punishment, but he had a vision of the Lord entering the gates of the city. The disciple asked Christ where he was going. "To Rome to be crucified again," came the reply, and Peter returned.

Since the apostle was not a Roman citizen, he was scourged and crucified on a cross. Before his death, he remembered his sins and considered himself unworthy to accept the same death as his Lord. At Peter's request, the executioners nailed him upside down.

Persecution of Christians under Domitian

Under the emperor Domitian, a decree was issued according to which no Christian who appeared before the court would be pardoned if he did not renounce his faith. Sometimes his hatred reached the point of complete recklessness: Christians were blamed for the fires, diseases, earthquakes that happened in the country. The state paid money to those who were ready to testify against Christians in court. Slander and lies greatly aggravated the already difficult position of Christians in the Roman Empire. The persecution continued.

Persecution under Hadrian

During the reign of Emperor Hadrian, about ten thousand Christians died. From his hand, the whole family of the brave Roman military leader, an open-hearted Christian, Eustachius, who refused to sacrifice to idols in honor of victory, perished.

The brothers Fausin and Jovit endured torture with such humble patience that the pagan Caloserius said in amazement: "How great is the Christian God!" He was immediately arrested and also tortured.

Persecution under Marcus Aurelius Antoninus

The famous philosopher of antiquity, Marcus Aurelius, was also widely known for his ruthlessness. On his initiative, the fourth persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire began.

The disciple of the Apostle John Polycarp, having learned that Roman soldiers had come to arrest him, tried to hide, but was soon found. The bishop fed his captors and asked them to let him pray. His zeal impressed the soldiers so much that they asked him for forgiveness. Polycarp was sentenced to be burned in the marketplace, before offering him to renounce his faith. But Polycarp replied: "How can I betray my King, who never betrayed me?" The firewood that had been set on fire flared up, but the flames did not touch his body. Then the executioner pierced the bishop with his sword.

Under the emperor Marcus Aurelius, the deacon Sanctus from Vienna also died. He was tortured by placing red-hot plates of copper on his naked body, which burned his flesh to the bone.

Persecution under Septimius Severus

In the first decade of his reign, Septimius tolerated the followers of Christianity and was not afraid to keep them at court. But in 202, after the Parthian campaign, he tightened the religious policy of the Roman state. His biography says that he forbade the adoption Christian faith under the threat of terrible punishments, although he allowed those who had already been converted to profess the Christian religion in the Roman Empire. Many of the victims of the cruel emperor occupied a high social position, which greatly shocked society.

It is to this time that the sacrifice of Felicity and Perpetua, Christian martyrs, dates back. "The Passion of Saints Perpetua, Felicity and those who suffered with them" is one of the earliest documents of this kind in the history of Christianity.

Perpetua was a young girl with a baby, came from a noble family. Felicitata served her and was pregnant at the time of her arrest. Together with them, Saturninus and Secundulus, as well as the slave Revocat, were imprisoned. All of them were preparing to accept Christianity, which was forbidden by the law of that time. They were taken into custody, and soon their mentor Satur joined them, not wanting to hide.

The Passion says that Perpetua had a hard time during the first days of her imprisonment, worrying about her baby, but the deacons managed to bribe the guards and hand over the child to her. After that, the dungeon became like a palace for her. Her father, a pagan, and the Roman procurator tried to persuade Perpetua to renounce Christ, but the girl was adamant.

Death took Secundul while he was in custody. Felicity was afraid that the law would not allow her to give her soul to the glory of Christ, since Roman law forbade the execution of pregnant women. But a few days before her execution, she gave birth to a daughter, who was handed over to a free Christian.

The prisoners again declared themselves Christians and were sentenced to death - being torn to pieces by wild animals; but the beasts could not kill them. Then the martyrs greeted each other with a brotherly kiss and were beheaded.

Persecution under Maximin the Thracian

Under Emperor Marcus Clodius Maximinus, the life of Christians in the Roman Empire was under constant threat. At this time, mass executions were carried out, often up to fifty people had to be buried in one grave.

The Roman Bishop Pontianus was exiled to the mines of Sardinia for preaching, which at that time was equivalent to a death sentence. His successor Anter was assassinated 40 days after Pontian's death for insulting the government.

Despite the fact that Maximinus persecuted mainly the clergy who were at the head of the Church, this did not prevent him from executing the Roman senator Pammach, his family, and 42 other Christians. Their heads were hung on the city gates for intimidation.

Persecution of Christians under Decius

No less difficult time for Christianity was the reign of Emperor Decius. The motives that pushed him to such cruelty are still unclear. Some sources say that the reason for the new persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (the events of those times are briefly discussed in the article) was hatred towards his predecessor, the Christian emperor Philip. According to other sources, Decius Trajan did not like the fact that Christianity spread throughout the state overshadowed the pagan gods.

Whatever the origins of the eighth persecution of Christians, it is considered one of the most cruel. New problems were added to the old problems of Christians in the Roman Empire: the emperor issued two edicts, the first of which was directed against the supreme clergy, and the second ordered sacrifices to be made throughout the empire.

The new legislation had to do two things at once. Every Roman citizen was required to go through a pagan ritual. So any person who was under suspicion could prove that the accusations against him were completely unfounded. With the help of this trick, Decius not only discovered Christians, who were immediately sentenced to death, but also tried to force them to renounce their faith.

The young man Peter, known for his intelligence and beauty, had to make a sacrifice to the Roman goddess of carnal love, Venus. The young man refused, declaring that he was surprised how one could worship a woman whose debauchery and baseness are spoken of in the Roman scriptures themselves. For this, Peter was stretched out on a crushing wheel and tortured, and then, when he had not a single whole bone left, they beheaded him.

The ruler of Sicily, Quantin, wanted to get a girl named Agatha, but she refused him. Then, using his power, he gave her to a brothel. However, Agatha, being a true Christian, remained true to her principles. Enraged, Quantin ordered her to be tortured, whipped, and then put on hot coals mixed with glass. Agatha endured with dignity all the cruelties that fell to her lot and later died in prison from her wounds.

Persecution of Christians under Valerian

The first years of the emperor's reign were a time of calm for Christians in the Roman Empire. Some even thought that Valerian was very friendly towards them. But in 257, his opinion changed dramatically. Perhaps the reason lies in the influence of his friend Macrinus, who did not like the Christian religion.

First, Publius Valerian ordered all clerics to sacrifice to the Roman gods, for disobedience they were sent into exile. The ruler believed that, acting moderately, he would achieve a greater result in anti-Christian policy than the use of cruel measures. He hoped that the Christian bishops would renounce their faith, and that their flock would follow them.

In the Golden Legend, a collection of Christian legends and descriptions of the lives of the saints, it is said that the imperial soldiers cut off the head of Stephen I right during the mass that the Pope served for his pasture. According to legend, his blood was not erased from the papal throne for a long time. His successor, Pope Sixtus II, was executed after the issuance of the second order, on August 6, 259, along with six of his deacons.

Soon it turned out that such a policy was ineffective, and Valerian issued a new edict. Clerics were executed for disobedience, noble citizens and their families were deprived of property, and in case of disobedience they were killed.

Such was the fate of two beautiful girls, Rufina and Secunda. They and their young people were Christians. When the persecution of Christians began in the Roman Empire, the young men were afraid of losing their wealth and renounced their faith. They tried to persuade their lovers, too, but the girls were adamant. Their former halves did not fail to write a denunciation against them, Rufina and Secunda were arrested and then beheaded.

Persecution of Diocletian and Galerius

The hardest test fell on the Christians of the Roman Empire under Diocletian and his eastern co-ruler Galerius. The last persecution then became known as the "Great Persecution".

The emperor sought to revive the dying pagan religion. He began the implementation of his plan in 303 in the eastern part of the country. Early in the morning, soldiers broke into the main Christian church and burned all the books. Diocletian and his adopted son Galerius wished to personally see the beginning of the end of the Christian faith, and what they had done seemed not enough. The building was destroyed to the ground.

The next step was the issuance of a decree according to which the Christians of Nicomedia were to be arrested and their places of worship burned. Galerius wanted more blood, and he ordered to set fire to his father's palace, blaming the Christians for everything. The flames of persecution engulfed the whole country. At that time, the empire was divided into two parts - Gaul and Britain. In Britain, which was in the power of Constantius, the second decree was not carried out.

For ten years, Christians were tortured, accused of the misfortunes of the state, diseases, fires. Entire families died in the fire, many had stones hung around their necks and drowned in the sea. Then the rulers of many Roman lands asked the emperor to stop, but it was too late. Christians were mutilated, many were deprived of their eyes, nose, ears.

Edict of Milan and its meaning

The cessation of persecution dates back to 313 AD. This important change in the position of Christians is associated with the creation of the Edict of Milan by the emperors Constantine and Licinius.

This document was a continuation of the Edict of Nicomedia, which was only a step towards ending the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. The Edict of Toleration was issued by Galerius in 311. Although he is considered guilty of starting the Great Persecution, he still admitted that the persecution had failed. Christianity did not disappear, but rather strengthened its position.

The document conditionally legalized confession Christian religion on the territory of the country, but at the same time Christians had to pray for the emperor and Rome, they did not receive back their churches and temples.

The Edict of Milan deprived paganism of the role of the state religion. Christians were given back their property, which they had lost as a result of persecution. The 300-year period of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire has ended.

Terrible torture during the persecution of Christians

Stories about how Christians were tortured in the Roman Empire have entered the lives of many saints. Although the Roman legal system favored the sentence of crucifixion or being eaten by lions, in Christian history more sophisticated methods of torture can also be found.

For example, Saint Lawrence devoted his life to caring for the poor and overseeing the property of the church. One day, the Roman prefect wanted to seize the money kept by Lawrence. The deacon asked for three days to collect, and during that time he distributed everything to the poor. The angry Roman ordered that the recalcitrant priest be severely punished. A metal grate was placed over the hot coals, on which Lavrenty was laid. His body slowly charred, his flesh hissed, but the Perfect did not wait for an apology. Instead, he heard following words: "You baked me on one side, so turn it over to the other and eat my body!".

The Roman emperor Decius hated Christians for their refusal to worship him as a deity. Learning that his best soldiers had secretly converted to the Christian faith, he tried to bribe them into returning. In response, the soldiers left the city and took refuge in a cave. Decius had the shelter bricked up, and all seven died of dehydration and starvation.

Cecilia of Rome from an early age professed Christianity. Her parents married her to a pagan, but the girl did not resist, but only prayed for the help of the Lord. She was able to dissuade her husband from carnal love and brought him to Christianity. Together they helped the poor throughout Rome. Almachius, the prefect of Turkey, ordered Caecilia and Valerian to sacrifice to the pagan gods, and in response to their refusal, he sentenced them to death. Roman justice was to be done away from the city. On the way, the young couple was able to convert several soldiers to Christianity and their boss, Maxim, who invited the Christians home and, together with his family, converted to the faith. The next day, after the execution of Valerian, Maxim said that he saw the ascent of the soul of the deceased to heaven, for which he was beaten to death with whips. For several days, Cecilia was kept in a bath of boiling water, but the maiden martyr survived. When the executioner tried to cut off her head, he only managed to inflict mortal wounds. Saint Cecilia remained alive for several more days, continuing to turn people to the Lord.

But one of the most terrible fates befell Saint Victor Maurus. He was preaching in secret in Milan when he was captured and tied to a horse and dragged through the streets. The crowd demanded renunciation, but the preacher remained faithful to the religion. For refusal, he was crucified and then thrown into prison. Victor converted several guards to Christianity, for which Emperor Maximilian soon executed them. The preacher himself was ordered to offer a sacrifice to the Roman god. Instead, he attacked the altar with rage. Unsubdued, he was thrown into a stone mill and crushed.

Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Conclusion

In 379, power over the state passed into the hands of Emperor Theodosius I, the last ruler of the unified Roman Empire. The Edict of Milan was terminated, according to which the country had to remain neutral in relation to religion. This event was like a conclusion to the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. On February 27, 380, Theodosius the Great proclaimed Christianity the only religion acceptable to Roman citizens.

Thus ended the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. 15 sheets of text cannot contain all the important information about those times. However, we tried to present the very essence of those events in the most accessible and detailed way.

On the causes of the persecution of Christians in ancient rome there are many different opinions. The majority in one way or another approach the point of view of Gibbon, who associated persecution with the departure of Christians from public life and their rejection of the imperial cult. The ancient state, despite its religious tolerance, demanded loyalty to the state religion and agreed to an exception only for the Jews, whose religion was based on an ancient national tradition. Theodor Mommsen believes that Roman religious tolerance extended only to persons who did not enjoy the rights of citizenship, while citizens were required to renounce foreign cults; however, the state went forward religious feelings population, as citizenship rights expand. Mommsen finds no article in Roman law under which Christians could be held liable as such; they were accused of either blasphemy or lèse majesté, and the central government punished Christians only as a concession to the fanaticism of the masses. Only in the III century. some emperors themselves fell under the influence of this fanaticism and organized a massive persecution of Christians. Mommsen believes that it was not only the central government that opposed the transition of citizens to foreign cults, the municipalities acted in the same way in relation to their citizens.

With the prohibition of not foreign, but secret cults and mysteries, Reizenstein connects the persecution of Christians, attributing this prohibition to the fear of the Roman government of all sorts of secret alliances that could become a convenient form for organizing all kinds of anti-state conspiracies.

But there is also a point of view that denies any religious restrictions at all in Rome. Some historians argue that the known cases of the prohibition of certain cults were caused only by the fact that their participants were suspected of crimes (prohibition of bacchanalia), immorality or fraud (expulsion of Isis worshipers and Jews under Tiberius). Christians were persecuted not for apostasy from the national religion, but on suspicion of diverting citizens from loyalty to the state.

The Christians themselves, as is clear from Tertullian's "Apology", tried to prove that they were persecuted for one "name", although Tertullian notes that Christians, in addition to the "name", were accused of unwillingness to honor the emperor, refusal of public life, debauchery , ritual murders, etc.

It should be noted that the persecution of the first two centuries differed significantly in character from the persecution of the third century. If in the III century. they undoubtedly came from the central government, were formalized by the corresponding decrees and were supposed to be massive, then until the end of the 2nd century. they were more or less random. This is indicated by the well-known testimony of Origen about the insignificance of the number of those who suffered for their faith. Eusebius also mentions only a small number of martyrs in the time of the Antonines. Lactantius in his work "De mortibus persecutorum" of the persecutors before Decius mentions only Nero and Domitian. Eusebius was even inclined to attribute to Antoninus Pius, Adrian and M. Aurelius special edicts in defense of Christians. The emergence of the concept of such edicts, of course, could only be explained by the absence of major persecutions from the central government. The same persecution of Christians that took place arose spontaneously, and the authorities rather conceded external influence than played an active role. This is also indicated by Trajan's answer to Pliny: Christians should be punished only when it was necessary so as not to cause a sharp explosion of discontent. A clear illustration of this policy is the story given by Eusebius about the death of the Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp, whose death was demanded from the prefect by the people gathered in the circus.

Often the initiators of the persecution of Christians were the priests of various Eastern cults, magicians, soothsayers, who saw Christians as dangerous competitors. The “Acts of the Apostles” speaks of the Ephesian artisans who worked for the temple and feared that success Christian preaching affect their income. Eusebius tells about the death of the famous Christian figure Justin through the fault of the Cynic philosopher Crescent, who, suffering defeat in public disputes with Justin, convinced the people that Christians were atheists and impious. The well-known Christian pogrom in Alexandria under Philip the Arab began, according to the testimony of Bishop Dionysius of Alexandria, due to the instigation of some magician or poet. Also interesting is the more objective testimony of Lucian, who in his "Alexander, or the False Prophet" shows how the charlatan Alexander, embarking on his mysteries, drives out the Epicureans and Christians with the help of a crowd of his admirers. When one of his tricks failed, he set the people against the Epicureans, which he certainly could have done against the Christians.

Indignation against Christians often flared up during various natural disasters, crop failures, epidemics, since they, as "godless", were considered guilty, having brought the wrath and punishment of the gods on the people.

Causes of persecution in the 3rd century lay deeper. Christianity arose as a movement of slaves and the poor, powerless and oppressed, conquered and scattered by Rome peoples. And although in the II-III centuries. official church began to "forget" the "naivety" of early Christianity, it continued to remain in opposition to the "pagan" empire and the hostile "pagan" ideology.

Christianity spread most rapidly in the Asian provinces, where the New Testament literature developed and from where in the 2nd century. were mostly Christian writers.

Christianity spread the more rapidly in the province, the more its decline was brought by Roman rule. Even under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, the provinces apparently maintained a visible prosperity. But under M. Aurelius, the situation begins to change. True, his biographer speaks of his meekness towards the provincials, but the war and the plague could not but affect the position of the provinces. This is indicated by such objective data as the movement of the Bucols in Egypt, unrest in the province of the Sequans and in Spain, the rebellion of Avidius Cassius in the eastern provinces.

If under M. Aurelius the symptoms of an impending crisis are already clearly felt, then under him the persecution of Christians begins, much closer in type to the persecutions of the 3rd century than the 2nd century.

This persecution was already started at the initiative of the government. Christians were forbidden access to baths, public buildings and the forum. This was followed by beatings and persecution of Christians. They were tried both in Lyon and in Smyrna, but the number of victims was small. For Asia Minor, Eusebius names 5 - 7 people. For Lugudun, he speaks of 10 fallen back and 5 especially staunch martyrs. There were martyrs in Egypt too. About the Gallic Christians, the proconsul asked the emperor and received an order to cut off the heads of the stubborn ones. This means that the emperor began to attach great importance to the Christian danger, seeing in Christians not just ignorant people infected with gross superstition. Most likely, this new attitude towards Christians can be associated with the beginning of the movement in the provinces. Lugudun was just the most important city of that province of the Sequans, the unrest in which Marcus Aurelius suppressed. Persecution took place in the eastern provinces, where Avidius Cassius was active, and in Egypt, where the uprising of the Bukols took place.

There is no indication that Christians took any part in any of these disturbances. Roman sources in general rarely mention Christians, and Christian ones would keep silent about such facts if they did occur, since they usually aimed to prove the loyalty of Christians. But even if we assume that Christians did not take an active part in the anti-imperial movements, it is quite natural that the government, worried about the recalcitrance of the provinces, could not continue to tolerate Christians, opposition-minded elements began to adjoin the latter more and more.

Just like Marcus Aurelius, behaved towards Christians and Septimius Severus. After defeating Niger and Albina, he dealt with their supporters, as well as with the cities of Neapolis and Antioch that supported Niger, depriving them of all rights and privileges. In connection with the suppression of the uprising in Syria and Palestine, the conversion to Judaism was prohibited. At the same time, the adoption of Christianity was also prohibited. This testimony (very important given the rarity of mention in pagan sources about the policy of emperors towards Christians) is confirmed by Eusebius' reference to the martyrdom of a number of bishops under Septimius Severus, as well as many catechumens from the catechetical school in Alexandria. The deaths of bishops indicate that converts and leaders of Christian communities were persecuted. Again, as under M. Aurelius, the persecution of Christians breaks out after the suppression of the movement in the provinces and the uprising of the usurpers.

True, Christian sources directly deny any connection between Christians and elements actively fighting against the empire. Tertullian repeatedly makes it appear that Christians do not conspire, that they do not take revenge, despite the fact that, due to their large numbers, they could “repay evil for evil in one night with several torches.” Finally, he says directly that among Christians there are no Cassians, Nigers and Albines, who appear only among pagans. But, firstly, Tertullian is not objective, since he wants to prove the complete loyalty of the Christians, and, secondly, even if the Christians did not take an active part in the struggle, their passive opposition could not have been more tolerated by the government when provincial uprisings threatened the integrity of the empire. . Moreover, Christians did not always, apparently, stand completely aloof from any political and anti-imperial struggle. This is indicated by the alliance of Bishop Paul of Samosata with the Empress Zenobia of Palmyra in her struggle with Rome. Adjoining Paul was a group of Syrian heretic Christians - anti-trinitarians, who, apparently, benefited from Zenobia's separatist aspirations. As you know, after the victory over the latter, Aurelian also dealt with Paul, supporting the candidacy of an orthodox bishop.

From Septimius Severus to Decius there is no reliable news of persecution. Eusebius briefly mentions that "Maximin persecuted the faithful", but does not give any details. Lactantius does not mention the persecutions of Maximinus at all. This may be a strong argument in favor of the fact that these persecutions did not take place at all, since, otherwise, Lactantius, of course, would have used the death of Maximinus as another example of the heavenly punishment that befalls the persecutors.

It should be noted that if in relation to the majority of emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries. Christians could with some right to assert that only tyrants and villains were their persecutors, then at the end of the 2nd century. and, most importantly, in the III century. the picture is changing. Without going into a detailed analysis of this extremely obscure source, we note, however, that its orientation was mainly senatorial. The authors always credit the emperors with the fact that they respected the senate and did not execute senators for no reason. High respect for the Senate is attributed in particular to two persecutors - M. Aurelius and Valerian. Decius also came from the senators, whose biography, unfortunately, has not been preserved, and scarce information about which can be gleaned only from the biography of Valerian.

Under most of the anti-Senatorial emperors, Christians enjoyed more or less significant freedom and security. The attitude of the Roman Senate towards Christians has always been hostile. This can be seen in the example of the ideologists of this class - Tacitus, Suetonius, and others. In the middle of the III century. this attitude has not changed, as can be seen from the speech of Maecenas written by Dio Cassius to Augustus, in which advice is definitely given to fight foreign cults in every possible way. The antagonism between the senatorial party and the Christians especially increased by the middle of the 3rd century. If under Marcus Aurelius one can only vaguely assume a connection between the growth of opposition in the provinces, the spread of Christianity there and its persecution by the government, then in the middle of the 3rd century. this connection becomes much more tangible. Christianity becomes one of the manifestations of the discontent of the provincial average landowners, the municipal nobility against the "destructive draining of funds" from Rome. The composition of the Christian community itself is rapidly changing in the direction of shifting the center of gravity from the "working and burdened" to representatives of the more prosperous strata. The number of the latter is growing, they are beginning to push back the former democratic members of the Christian church and, accepting the Christian teaching, change it in a direction more acceptable to themselves.

One of the main moments of the crisis of the III century. - aggravation of relations between Rome and the provinces. This is a fight against usurpers and unrest in the provinces. Hints of a connection between persecution of Christians and conflicts in the provinces are already visible under M. Aurelius and S. Severus, this connection appears more clearly under Decius.

Decius was a senatorial emperor who succeeded various anti-senatorial emperors, often from the provinces. As such, he expressed the interests of the party of which he was a protege. Decius tried to ensure the loyalty of the provinces and to eradicate Christianity, which provided the ideological justification for the ever-increasing desire of the provincials to evade state duties.

Despite the determined intention to fight against Christians, the persecution was far from being of the frightening form that Catholic historiography usually ascribes to them. So, from a letter from Cornelius to Bishop Fabius of Antioch, we learn that at the very height of the persecution of Decius in Rome, there were 7 deacons, 7 subdeacons, 46 presbyters, 42 acoluths, 52 exorcists and readers who supported 1,500 indigents, buried the dead, exhorted Christians not to renounce , standing near the very temples, etc. The same picture, judging by the letter of Dionysius of Alexandria, took place in Alexandria. A large clergy also remained in Carthage, maintaining a lively correspondence with Rome and with Cyprian; confessors in prisons were constantly visited by Christians, sometimes gathering even in whole crowds; presbyters and deacons were allowed into the dungeon, who prayed with the prisoners. The number of martyrs was also small. So, Dionysius of Alexandria names 17 people, the same number of martyrs is given by Lucian in a letter to Celerian for the Carthaginian church. At the same time, 14 of these 17 people died in prison, one in a quarry, and only two actually died under torture. And yet, despite this, the persecution seemed at first to have been a decisive success.

Sources point to a large number of those who renounced Christianity - "lapsi". Dionysius of Alexandria and Cyprian describe at length how the Christians themselves hastened to offer sacrifice to the gods, without waiting to be seized and forcibly taken to the temple. Cyprian repeatedly mourns the significant masses of those who have fallen away and even speaks of the "death of a people, once so numerous." The number of "lapsi" is also evidenced by the fact that subsequently confessors issued up to 1000 peace letters a day. But, despite this apparent defeat, the victory remained with Christianity. A very vivid illustration is given by the history of the Carthaginian church during the persecution, in the illumination of Cyprian (letters and treatises).

Persecution strengthened Christianity, contributing to its centralization, which went so far that the question of the primacy of one bishop in all of Christianity could already arise. In essence, the question of who would be the head of the church was, however, in a disguised form, the struggle between Cyprian and the Roman bishop Stephen.

Another indicator of the strengthening of the church was the fact that soon the persecution of Valerian broke out, of which Cyprian himself fell victim, did not lead to a massive apostasy, as did the persecution of Decius.

Christianity, in which the “working and burdened” now receded into the background, became in the orthodox church only obedient admirers and an obedient herd of clergy, was losing its original democratic revolutionary spirit. This spirit must now seek its expression in various heresies. But the Christian community still remained an organization in opposition to the empire and Rome. The hostility of the state to it took on more and more active forms as the share of provincial opposition in Christianity increased. The church needed a strong, centralized organization capable of repelling an attack by the enemy, and persecution not only did not interfere with creating such, but, on the contrary, helped. Therefore, the victory remained on the side of Christianity, preparing in the near future for peace and an alliance with the empire.

The causes and motives of the three-century G. against Christians by the Roman Empire are complex and varied. From the point of view of the Roman state, Christians were offenders to majesty (majestatis rei), apostates from state deities (άθεοι, sacrilegi), followers of magic prohibited by law (magi, malefici), confessors of a religion forbidden by law (religio nova, peregrina et illicita). Christians were accused of lèse majesté, both because they gathered secretly and at night for their worship, constituting unlawful meetings (participation in the "collegium illicitum" or "coetus nocturni" was equated with rebellion), and because they refused to honor the imperial images with libations and smoking. Apostasy from state deities (sacrilegium) was also considered a form of lèse majesté. Miraculous healings and the institute of exorcists that existed in the primitive Church were considered by the pagans to be the work of magic forbidden by law. They thought that Jesus left his followers magic books in which the secret of exorcism and healing is laid out. Therefore, the holy the books of Christians were the subject of careful searches by the pagan authorities, especially during the time of G. Diocletian. Magical writings and magicians themselves were legally condemned to be burned, and accomplices in crime were crucified or died in the circus. As for religiones peregrinae, they were already prohibited by the laws of the XII tables: according to the laws of the empire, people of the upper class were subject to exile for belonging to an alien religion, and the lower class to death. Christianity was, moreover, a complete negation of the entire pagan system: religion, state, way of life, customs, social and family life. A Christian for a pagan was an "enemy" in the broadest sense of the word: hostis publicus deorum, imperatorum, legum, morum, naturae totius inimicus, etc. Emperors, rulers and legislators saw Christians as conspirators and rebels, shaking all the foundations of state and public life. Priests and other ministers of the pagan religion naturally had to be at enmity against Christians and incite enmity towards them. Educated people who do not believe in the ancient gods, but who revere science, art, the entire Greco-Roman culture, saw the spread of Christianity - this, from their point of view, wild oriental superstition - as a great danger to civilization. The uneducated mob, blindly attached to idols, pagan holidays and rituals, pursued the "godless" with fanaticism. With such a mood of pagan society, the most absurd rumors could spread about Christians, find faith and arouse new enmity towards Christians. All pagan society, with particular zeal, helped to carry out the punishment of the law on those whom it considered enemies of society and even accused of hatred for the entire human race.

It has been customary since ancient times to count ten G. for Christians, namely from the side of the emperors: Nero, Domitian, Trajan, M. Aurelius, S. Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valais, Aurelian and Diocletian. Such an account is artificial, based on the number of Egyptian plagues or horns fighting against the lamb in the Apocalypse (Rev. 17, 12). It does not correspond to the facts and does not explain events well. There were less than ten general, ubiquitous systematic G., and incomparably more private, local and random. G. did not have the same ferocity always and in all places. The very crimes brought against Christians, for example. sacrilegium, could be punished more severely or softer, at the discretion of the judge. The best emperors, like Trajan, M. Aurelius, Decius and Diocletian, persecuted Christians, because it was important for them to protect the foundations of state and public life. Unworthy emperors, like Commodus, Caracalla and Heliogabalus, were indulgent towards Christians, of course, not out of sympathy, but out of complete neglect of state affairs. Often the society itself began the persecution against Christians and encouraged the rulers to do so. This was especially evident during public calamities. In North Africa, a proverb was formed: "there is no rain, therefore the Christians are to blame." As soon as there was a flood, a drought or an epidemic, the fanatical crowd shouted: "chri stianos ad leones"! In the persecutions, the initiative of which belonged to the emperors, sometimes political motives were in the foreground - disrespect for the emperors and anti-state aspirations, sometimes purely religious motives - the denial of the gods and belonging to an unlawful religion. However, politics and religion could never be completely separated, because religion was considered in Rome as a matter of state.

The Roman government at first did not know Christians: it considered them a Jewish sect. In this capacity the Christians enjoyed tolerance and at the same time were as despised as the Jews. The first G. is considered to be undertaken by Nero (64); but it was not really persecution for the faith, and does not seem to have extended beyond Rome. The tyrant wanted to punish those who, in the eyes of the people, were capable of a shameful deed for the fire of Rome, in which popular opinion accused him. As a result, the well-known inhuman extermination of Christians in Rome took place. Since then, Christians have felt a complete disgust for the Roman state, as can be seen from the apocalyptic description of the great Babylon, a woman drunk with the blood of martyrs. Nero in the eyes of Christians was the Antichrist, who would once again appear to fight against the people of God, and the Roman Empire was the kingdom of demons, which would soon be completely destroyed with the coming of Christ and the foundation of the blessed kingdom of the Messiah. Under Nero in Rome, according to ancient church tradition, the apostles Paul and Peter suffered. The second persecution is attributed to the emperor. Domitian (81-96); but it was not systematic and ubiquitous. There were several executions in Rome, for reasons little known; from Palestine were presented to Rome the relatives of Christ in the flesh, the descendants of David, in whose innocence, however, the emperor himself was convinced and allowed them to return unhindered to their homeland. - For the first time, the Roman state began to act against Christians as against a certain society, politically suspicious, under the emperor. Trajan (98-117), who, at the request of Pliny the Younger, the ruler of Bithynia, indicated how the authorities should deal with Christians. According to Pliny's report, no political crimes were noticed for Christians, except perhaps for rude superstition and invincible stubbornness (they did not want to make libations and incense in front of the imperial images). In view of this, the emperor decided not to look for Christians and not to accept anonymous denunciations against them; but, if they are legally accused, and, upon investigation, prove stubborn in their superstition, put them to death. Trajan's immediate successors also adhered to this definition regarding Christians. But the number of Christians quickly multiplied, and already in some places pagan temples began to empty. The numerous and widespread secret society of Christ could no longer be tolerated by the government, like the Jewish sect: it was, in his eyes, dangerous not only for the state religion, but also for civil order. Imperial is unfairly attributed. Adrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-160) edicts favorable to Christians. With them, the decree of Trajan remained in full force. But the persecution of their time might seem insignificant compared to what the Christians experienced in the last years of the reign of M. Aurelius (161-180). M. Aurelius despised Christians, as a Stoic philosopher, and hated them, as a ruler who cares about the welfare of the state. Therefore, he ordered to search for Christians and decided to torture and torment them in order to turn them away from superstition and stubbornness; those who remained firm were subject to the death penalty. Persecution simultaneously raged in various parts of the empire: in Gaul, Greece, in the East. We have detailed information about the persecution of Christians at this time in the Gallic cities of Lyons and Vienne. Under M. Aurelius in Rome, St. suffered. Justin the philosopher, an apologist for Christianity, in Lyon - Pofin, a 90-year-old elder, a bishop; the maiden Blondina and the 15-year-old young man Pontik became famous for their firmness in enduring torment and heroic death. The bodies of the martyrs lay in heaps along the streets of Lyon, which they then burned and threw the ashes into the Rhone. The successor of M. Aurelius, Commodus (180-192), restored Trajan's legislation, which was more merciful for Christians. S. Sever until 202 was relatively favorable to Christians, but since that year severe persecutions broke out in various parts of the empire; with particular force they raged in Egypt and Africa; here, two young women, Perepetua and Felicitata, became famous for the special heroism of martyrdom. Religious syncretism imp. Heliogabalus (218-222) and Al. Severus (222-235) urged them to treat Christians favorably. In the short reign of Maximinus (235-238), both the emperor's dislike and the fanaticism of the mob, stirred up against Christians by various disasters, were the cause of severe persecution in many provinces. Under the successors of Maximin, and especially under Philip the Arabian (244-249), Christians enjoyed such indulgence that the latter was even considered a Christian himself. With the accession to the throne of Decius (249-251), such a persecution broke out over Christians, which, in systematicity and cruelty, surpassed all previous ones, even the persecution of M. Aurelius. The emperor, taking care of the old religion and the preservation of all ancient state orders, himself led the persecution; detailed instructions were given to the provincial chiefs in this respect. Serious attention was paid to the fact that none of the Christians took refuge from the search; the number of executions was extremely high. The Church was adorned with many glorious martyrs; but there were many who fell away, especially because the long period of tranquility that had preceded had lulled some of the heroism of martyrdom. Under Valerian (253-260), at the beginning of his reign, indulgent towards Christians, they again had to endure severe persecution. In order to upset Christian society, the government now paid special attention to Christians from the privileged classes, and above all to the primates and leaders of the Christian society, the bishops. Bishop suffered in Carthage. Cyprian, Pope Sixtus II in Rome, and his deacon Laurentius, a hero among the martyrs. Valerian's son Gallienus (260-268) stopped the persecution, and for about 40 years Christians enjoyed religious freedom- before the edict issued in 303 by Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian (284-305) did nothing at first against the Christians; some Christians even occupied prominent positions in the army and government. Some attributed the change in the mood of the emperor to his co-ruler Galerius (see). At their congress in Nicomedia, an edict was issued in which Christian meetings were ordered to be banned, churches to be destroyed, sacred books to be taken away and burned, and Christians to be deprived of all positions and rights. The persecution began with the destruction of the magnificent temple of the Nicomedia Christians. Shortly thereafter, a fire broke out in the imperial palace. This was blamed on the Christians; the second edict appeared, persecution flared up with particular force in different areas of the empire, except for Gaul, Britain and Spain, where Constantius Chlorus, who was favorable to Christians, ruled. In 305, when Diocletian renounced his rule, Galerius became co-ruler with Maximinus, an ardent enemy of the Christians. The suffering of Christians and numerous examples of martyrdom found an eloquent description in Eusebius, Bishop. Caesarea. In 311, shortly before his death, Galerius stopped the persecution and demanded prayers from Christians for the empire and the emperor. Maximin, who ruled the Asian East, and after the death of Galerius continued to persecute Christians. Little by little, however, the conviction grew stronger that it was impossible to achieve the destruction of Christianity. The first edict of religious tolerance, issued under Galerius, was followed in 312 and 313. the second and third edicts in the same spirit, issued by Constantine together with Licinius. According to the Edict of Milan in 313, Christians received complete freedom in the profession of their faith; their temples and all previously confiscated property were returned to them. Since the time of Constantine, Christianity has enjoyed the rights and privileges of the dominant religion in the Roman Empire, with the exception of a brief pagan reaction under the emperor Julian (361-363).

Literature: Le Blant, "Les bases juridiques des poursuites dirigées contre les martyrs" (in "Comptes rendus de l" academ. des inscript.", P., 1868); Keim, "Rom u. d. Christenthum" (1881); Aubé, "Hist. des persec. de l "église" (some articles from here were translated in the "Orthodox Review" and in the "Wanderer"); Uhlhorn, "Der Kampf des Christenthums mit dem Heidenthum" (1886); Berdnikov, "State position of religion in the Roman Empire" (1881, Kazan); Lashkarev, "The Attitude of the Roman State to Religion Before Constantine the Great" (Kyiv, 1876); A. Lebedev, "The era of persecution of Christians and so on." (Moscow, 1885).

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