"Hadyachsky treatise" 1658, September 6. Judas hetman Vyhovsky signs the "Gadyach Treaty" with the Poles, according to which "Little" Russia falls under the rule of the Polish invaders, and the "foreman" becomes the Polish gentry. 1658, September 24. The Russian Tsar learns about "Gadyachsky

Was born: 371 BC, Prov. Shandong

Died: 289 BC

Major works:"Mencius"

MAIN IDEAS

Man is kind by nature, initially possesses virtues.

The main virtues are ren (humanity) and u (duty-justice).

To achieve the full realization of his virtues, one must cultivate them.

The ruler must adhere to the "ruler's tao", and in the economic sphere must introduce a system of "well fields" (jin tian).

If Confucius is often compared to Socrates, then Mencius can be called the Chinese Plato. Without Plato, we would not know anything about Socrates, and without Mencius we would never have been able to understand Confucianism in full.

Mencius was born in Shandong, not far from the place where Confucius himself was born. His mother was a widow, like Confucius's mother, but in the Chinese tradition it was she who became an exemplary mother, as she moved three times to find a more suitable environment for raising her son.

Already in his youth, the boy set himself the goal of saving the Celestial Empire by "clarifying the consciousness of people, exposing false ideas, eradicating bad behavior, refusing to seduce speeches." He did not hesitate to call himself a second Confucius.

Perhaps it was thanks to this that he later received the title of "second wise man" in China. Since the Tang Dynasty, his treatise "Mencius" has received the status of an exemplary work and one of the highest achievements of Chinese philosophy.

HUMAN NATURE

Confucius argued that "all people are born the same, but gradually, thanks to habits, they move away from each other," but he never spoke about the nature of man - is it good or evil? Perhaps Mencius was the first to formulate a point of view on the nature of morality - he believed that basic virtues, such as ren (humanity), and (duty-justice), li (ritual), zhi (mind), are innate ...

"Inbornness" does not mean that even at birth, virtues are inherent in man - it is about the fact that they exist as a possibility, as a prerequisite. Mencius uses the term duan ("beginning", "limit") for accuracy. This means that each person is endowed with moral potential at the beginning of life, but only if he fully develops these inclinations, he will become a real sage.

The logical development of this position is Mencius' thesis that "every person can become Yao or Shun" (legendary sages-rulers of antiquity).

Mencius' argumentation is based on both empirical facts and logic. As an empirical justification, Mencius cites the example of a child who is about to fall into a well - at the sight of this, each person experiences a state of anxiety and a natural impulse to save the child. This is proof that compassion is inherent in us by nature, the inability to calmly contemplate the suffering of other people. This is an innate feeling, the "beginning" of compassion.

Mencius develops the theoretical substantiation of his concept in the process of discussion with Gao-tzu (ca. 420-350 BC), who argued that in moral terms, human nature is "none", neutral. Gao Tzu believed that morality is like water, and Mencius readily agreed with this analogy. Gao-tzu argued that the development of human nature depends on the circumstances - if the water is directed to the east, then it will flow to the east, if directed to the west, then it will flow to the west. Mencius objected to him that as water only flows downward, so human nature is primordially good. (Contemporary Chinese traditional scholars have criticized this analogy as "false."

But if a person is by nature good, then where does evil come from? Mencius explained this state of affairs by the fact that a person either turns out to be unable to develop natural inclinations, or even loses his nature altogether. But this has nothing to do with natural potential. That is why Mencius placed the "return" of the lost moral consciousness (heart, xin) at the basis of moral education. This concept subsequently had a strong influence on the neo-Confucians, especially on the philosophy of Zhu Chi.

Moral virtues

Mencius considered Ren and Yi to be the main virtues. Confucius in Lunyue speaks mainly of ren, while it is spoken of in fragmentary terms, only a few times. As for Mencius, he combined ren and and. First of all, he defined ren as "the heart of man", so now in China, ren is often translated into modern language as "humanity." And Mencius defined it as "the path that must be followed."

In the ethics of Mencius, the category plays an even greater role than ren. Initially, the meaning of the sign was "due". This concept is close to the Aristotelian golden mean. To determine “what is right”, in each specific situation, one should consider its context, the person and his desires and goals.

Mencius believed that the essence lies in the realization of the fact that a moral duty must certainly be fulfilled, a person must certainly act in accordance with a moral imperative, even if he has to sacrifice his own life. In this sense, the imperativeness of the category brings it closer to the moral imperative of Immanuel Kant.

An example for Mencius was clearly the numerous martyrs who gave their lives to prove their loyalty to their sovereign or lord. Confucius created only a general philosophical paradigm, while Mencius filled it with flesh and blood, created an inspiring model, almost turned philosophy into religion, combining knowledge and action.

METAPHYSICS OF MAN-TZI

We have already said that Mencius believed that everyone can attain the state of a sage. However, for this it is necessary to overcome a long and thorny spiritual path, a path that goes in the field of ethics and metaphysics, and not religion. Mencius described this spiritual path as "cultivating your qi." Qi is one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy and culture. Its etymological meaning is "steam", "evaporation" or "air". Subsequently, its meaning expanded, and it began to mean spiritual or physical strength, or impulse. It is with these meanings that Mencius' concept of "qi cultivation" is connected.

"Cultivating your qi" means to Mencius almost the same thing as "cultivating your spirit and morality." It is carried out only through the systematic performance and accumulation of good, or good, deeds, it cannot be achieved by doing some kind of good deeds from time to time. In this respect, Mencius's "qi cultivation" is close to the "eightfold path" in Buddhism, where "right thinking" and "right action" (or behavior) are also combined. However, the Buddha set the goal of such behavior to liberate oneself from suffering, while for Mencius it is in itself a goal, being valuable in itself, regardless of the possible consequences of such behavior.

This spiritual feat is closely related to Mencius's idea of ​​the ideal of personality, or "noble man" - tszyunzi. Mencius goes further than Confucius and creates the image of a "great man" - da zhangfu. This ideal personality is able to withstand any violence and pressure, neither wealth, nor fame, nor poverty, nor misery can destroy it. The "great man" takes the most correct, "middle" position in the Celestial Empire and goes through a great career.

POLITICS AND ECONOMY

Politically, Mencius is strongly influenced by Confucius, for whom the ideal of government was to rule with the help of Ren. Mencius further distinguishes between the "royal path" or "the path of the ruler" - "wang dao" and the "path of the hegemon" relying only on force ("ba dao"). The wang dao is characterized by the use of ren, while the ba dao is characterized by coercion and violence.

During his wanderings in China, Mencius tried to convince the rulers who received him to rule with the help of ren. However, none of them accepted his ideas, and the "royal path" remained an unrealized ideal for Confucianism.

Mencius obviously knew the political structure of the Zhou state well, and his political ideal was the golden age of this dynasty, when there was a rigid hierarchy in society, when everyone - from the ruler to the last subject - knew their place and their duties. Yes, despite the fact that Mencius was known to extol the "people" and their value in the state, he always stood guard over class interests and borders, and the democratic idea of ​​self-government and equality was alien to him.

In general, Mencius is skeptical of foreign influences and therefore strictly insisted on a truly Chinese model of the Zhou state in the form described by Confucius himself.

We do not know the economic views of Confucius, but the economic theory of Mencius is well known. Perhaps he was guided by the Zhou model of land allocation when he proposed the concept of "well fields" - jin tian. This system involved dividing a square with a side of a mile into nine smaller squares, of which eight were cultivated by peasant families only for themselves, and the ninth, central, square was considered public land, and the harvest from it belonged to the ruler and went to state needs.

Modern historians argue that this land-use system was never used in China, so despite the ancient references, Mencius's idea was entirely innovative - too innovative to exist in practice.

MAN TZU'S ATTITUDE TO OTHER PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS

There are many chapters in Mencius that describe the disputes between Mencius and representatives of other philosophical schools in China, especially with the followers of Yang Chu (440-360? BC), Xu Xing and the Moists.

An adherent of Taoism, Yang Zhu insisted on the need to save energy, preserve the supply of vital energy and raised moral egoism on the shield. Mencius, being a supporter of altruism, was based on the category of ren and the concept of social hierarchy. Xu Xing, a representative of the "agrarian" school, whose ideas were apparently close to those of early communism, argued that the ruler, like his subjects, should plow the land and feed on the products of his own labor. Mencius, as a supporter of a hierarchical society, argued that the smarter should rule, and those who are only capable of physical labor should be subjects, the division of social labor should be based on individual characteristics - a greater ability for mental or physical labor.

The younger contemporary of Confucius Mo-tzu (c. 470 - c. 391 BC) was a supporter of utilitarianism. His philosophy at one time was very authoritative. The Moists denied the Confucian ritual, in particular they criticized the rituals of wasteful funerals and prolonged mourning as harmful to society. Responding to such criticism, Mencius wrote:

In ancient times, parents were not buried: when a person's father died, his corpse was simply thrown into a ditch. Then this man, passing by, calmly contemplated the corpse of his father eaten by foxes or insects ... But then people stopped calmly enduring this sight, and the excitement of their hearts was reflected on their faces. People hurried home and buried the bodies of relatives with the help of shovels and baskets. If such a desire was natural even among primitive people, then what can we say about a respectful son, or a person who practices Ren in our times! It is clear that they are striving to bury their parents as best as possible!

Such argumentation, based on an appeal to human psychology, to his "innate" feelings, is very characteristic of the Confucians and is based, apparently, on their idea of ​​the constancy of the inner nature of man, thanks to which people adhered, in spite of everything, for millennia the same beliefs.

The philosopher was born on the territory of the kingdom of Lu in the fifth century BC. At birth, he had the name Mo Dee. Studying the names of philosophers, we find information about this worthy husband. He became the founder of philosophical doctrine and created his own school. Both nobles and commoners listened to his advice.

The foundation of the wisdom of the thinker

Mencius learned the truths that Confucius brought into the world directly from his followers, although he was not a Confucian. He did not take on faith the truths blindly stated by the teacher, but analyzed and, if necessary, disputed them. The Teaching Companions were more conservative than Mencius. His philosophy was judged as ignorant and brutal. A violent clash of currents of philosophical thought took place.

The essence of the teaching

The teaching of Mencius as its main paradigms puts forward the following principles.

People should live in peace and abandon internal enmity. Thus, the ruler must love the officials, and the government officials must love their head, children must respect their parents and vice versa.

The philosophical ideas of this sage insist that excessive abuse of power stems from a lack of love, which is considered the most exalted need. If it is not there, the person tries to fill it in any possible way. The whole society should work for the benefit of each other, and then everyone will have enough of a large piece of happiness.

Honesty, hard work and purity of thoughts

Many quotes from philosophers, including this outstanding figure, speak of a practical approach to life. He taught not only to think, but also to work, because the right thoughts should move a person to useful activity.

The Mencius school brought up brave warriors, natural scientists. Logical thinking developed here. If you read the texts of Mencius, quotations from them will show that the world is arranged according to a single plan, which determines the order of things, the movement of each star in the firmament, the change of seasons, temperature changes. In addition, the order of the coup d'etat was dictated from above.

Through the labors of Mencius, a new content was introduced into the custom of ruling. In the past, too much importance was attached to nobility, with which the philosopher tried to fight. Mencius said that it is not the title that is important, but the actions, that respect must be earned, and not inherited.

People of that time believed in dark and light forces that govern the life of the people. The sage used the ignorance of the people for good purposes - as a regulator of morality, to restrain human hearts from low impulses. His theories and methods fully justified themselves, because people took such thoughts on faith. Some superstitions have survived to this day. By creating images of punishing forces in the minds of people, the philosopher instilled in them self-control.

Ideal government image

The person ruling the state must constantly improve in order to set a worthy example for his followers. The people need a strong leader who understands their people. Then they will follow him, trust him. This is how the striving for unity will take place.

A wise leader will choose smart counselors for himself. The population should turn into a pyramid, along the walls of which, like the rays of the sun, wisdom and the most lofty impulses of the human soul descend. Thus, the ruling elite, again, had to be elected by talents and merit, and not by origin. The official had to prove that he was worthy to lead other people. To rule is also to listen, to be responsive. The rulers of the top had to conduct a dialogue with the population so that the needs of everyone were satisfied.

Expenses and expenditures must be strictly justified. In fact, a person does not need so much to be happy. Greed and immoderation lead to social inequality and revolution. It is necessary to develop production and instill in everyone a love of work. And this zeal will be only when the work is honestly and fairly paid. Man by nature wants to work, but in decent conditions. If this is ensured, the slaves will not have to be whipped on.

In word and deed

The image is glorified and petty people are condemned. Everyone should strive for excellence, improve themselves and the world around them with each new day.

Quotes

The sage added the most famous names of philosophers of all times, whose wisdom came to us through the centuries, thanks to the following thoughts:

• "The actions of a worthy person are reflected in people, not in the water."
• "Now in the higher spheres, worthy people show concern for little things, and not for big things."
• “A worthy person who shows love for a lesser brother receives love in return; thinking about the prosperity of a smaller brother will receive wealth from a smaller person. "
• "Anyone who overcomes any difficulty and hardship will be able to overtake what he wants."
• "He who has no will cannot be wise."
• "When you speak, speak accurately and accurately, and when taking action, be decisive."
• "To talk about kindness, but not to be kind is a crime."
• "Do not create and do not think what someone else will do, act yourself."
• "Calling for happiness, one cannot bypass it."
• "We ourselves are the creators of our own well-being and benefits."
• "Who can think deeply, speak simply and be truthful has a chance to become a perfect person."
• “In the event that a man of perfect nature becomes the ruler, the well-being of the entire people grows, for he manages the budget wisely and reasonably. Both the people and the ruler are satisfied. "

Promoting kindness and humanity

Mencius believed that a person must develop in order to achieve an ideal, to stand up for moral principles. States should not waste their funds on bloody wars, plunder and brutality. With wise management, there will be enough resources for everyone and everyone will have everything in abundance, without committing a sin for profit.

Disrespect, arrogance, disorderliness, lack of moral standards create chaos. Heirs must respect their parents, they must be brought up as honest and responsible people, endowed with bright thoughts and kind souls.

A person must love not only himself, but also those around him. In essence, all people are the influence of the environment on them. That is, loving others, we respect ourselves.

Distribution of values

The philosopher focused on the fact that there is something much more important and valuable than personal gain. Only at first glance it seems that you need to take advantage of the opportunity to cash in, even if it is dirty, if only because the opportunity has turned up. But this is exactly how the soul becomes covered with a coating of rust, through which, in the end, it is not visible.

Man turns into a wild animal. Although, looking at the actions of other people, it would be disrespectful to insult animals with such a comparison. Because the animal will not eat more than it needs. He will not save up. Will not trip and laugh out of pleasure. Only the master of the world, man, is endowed with these simple talents. If people love each other, everything around will bloom with the lightest and brightest colors. The world will be fragrant and its every impulse will fill the lungs of every person with an enchanting aroma. There will be a place for everyone, no one will be deprived.

Man is a social creature. He has an urgent need to exchange love and light with his own kind. So why exchange this miracle for fleeting material values, this rapidly withering weed, devouring the roots of the flowers of virtue. This infection is saturated and dies so quickly that you do not have time to blink, and kindness and humanity are eternal. The main thing is to make the right choice.

teacher Meng, Mencius, Meng Ke, Tzuyu, Chinese thinker, second after Confucius ("Following the Perfectly Wise" - i am sheng) the creator of Confucianism and the forerunner of neo-Confucianism, the author of the classical treatise of the same name Mencius, at the beginning of the II millennium (during the Song dynasty) included in the Thirteen Canon ( Shi san jing) and the Four Books ( Si shu).

According to the founder of Chinese historiography Sima Qian (2-1 century BC, Shi ji, ch. 74), Mencius was born in 372/371 or 389 BC. in the possession of Zou, historically and culturally connected with the state of Lu (on the Shandong Peninsula), where Confucius came from, and studied with his grandson Tzu-Si, from whom he directly took the precepts of the creator of Confucianism in his citadel Zou-lu (see. Chuang Tzu). Liu Xiang (1st century BC) in Le nyu zhuan(Biographies of Great Women, section Biographies of Model Mothers) published a story about Mencius's mother, a widow who changed her place of residence twice so that her son would find herself in a beneficial environment (she moved from the cemetery to the market, and from there to the school), and continued to educate him even after marriage, but as a result of following the "path of a woman" - after the death of her husband to obey his son. When she herself died, Mencius was accused of burying her more magnificently than his father ( Mencius, IB, 16). Mencius, like Confucius, visiting a number of states of central China and, in particular, pursuing asceticism in the capital of Qi in the academy Ji Xia, tried to influence their rulers, but to no avail. At about 70 years old, perhaps again according to the behest of Confucius, who at that age began to "follow the desires of his heart" ( Lun yu, II, 4), Mencius abandoned these attempts, returned to private life and devoted himself entirely to theoretical activity. Mencius died in 289 or 305 BC.

Interpreting protophilosophical classics - Shu jing("Canon of the Scriptures"), Shi jing("Canon of Poems") ( cm... SHI SAN JING) - and the legacy of Confucius, that is, by his own definition, “taking the Path- tao former perfect wise and opposing Yang [Zhu] and Mo [Di] ", whose" words filled the Celestial Empire "( Mencius, III B, 9), developed a doctrine, which, according to the definition of Han Fei (3rd century BC, Han Fei-tzu, ch. 50), became one of the eight Confucian schools of that period. The biography of Mencius is detailed in the works of textualists of the Qing era (1644-1911): Mencius bian nian("Chronicle of the Life of Mencius") Di Zyqi (18th century), Mencius si kao("Four Studies of Mencius") Zhou Guangye (1740-1798), Mencius shi shi kao("Investigation of the real facts concerning Mencius") Cui Shu (1740-1816), Mencius nian biao("Chronology of Mencius") Wei Yuan (1794-1856 / 7).

The teachings of Mencius are presented in a treatise consisting of 7 two-part chapters and 261 paragraphs Mencius modeled after Confuciev Lunyu, but unlike the latter, it contains a more complex system of argumentation, reflecting the development of protological and numerological ( xiang shu zhi xue) method. The share of Mencius' participation in writing the text of the book named after him is the subject of discussion. Sima Qian, first commentator Mencius Zhao Qi (c. 108 - c. 201) and the main founder of neo-Confucianism Zhu Xi (1130-1200) considered it the author of Mencius himself, while the forerunner of neo-Confucianism Han Yu (768-824) considered his disciples Gongsun Chou and Wan Zhang as such ... Their names are given to two chapters of the treatise (respectively - 2nd and 5th), which, according to the Japanese philosopher Ito Jinsai (1627-1705), apparently, were written by them. In the essay Mo-si ko gi("The ancient meaning Mencius") He also argued that the treatise is divided into two parts, both in content (in the three initial main ones, the deeds and statements of Mencius are described, and in the four final ones - only statements), and in form (1st, 3rd, The 4th and 7th chapters are stylistically different from the 2nd, 5th and 6th). In the oldest catalog of Chinese literature Yi wen zhi("Treatise on Arts and Texts") included in Han shu("The Book of the [Dynasty] Han", 1st century, tsz. 30), 11 chapters are reported Mencius although earlier in Shi ji 7 chapters that were present were mentioned. The "extra" four chapters are probably a lost work Meng tzu wai shu(“An unorthodox [literally: outer] book Mencius»), The modern text of which was compiled by Yao Shilin (1561 - c. 1651). The most important commentaries on Mencius are by Zhao Qi (included in Shi san jing), Zhu Xi (included in Si shu), Jiao Xun (1763-1820, included in Zhu zi zi cheng- "Corpus of Philosophical Classics"), Dai Zhen (1723-1777). There are translations of the treatise into Latin (S. Julien, 1824), English (J. Legge, 1895; LALyall, 1932; DCLau, 1970), German (R. Wilhelm, 1916), modern Chinese (Yang Bojun, 1962; Shi Tsiyun, 1972) and Russian (two complete - P.S. Popov, 1916, V.S. Kolokolov, posthumous publication 2000, and two partial - L.I. Duman, 1972, I.T. Zograf, 2000) languages.

The most important contribution of Mencius to Chinese philosophy was the doctrine of "good nature" ( xing shan) a person. In the Confucian understanding of the main characteristics of "nature" ( syn) a person's teachings of Confucius himself should be considered a kind of "zero cycle". It provided the prerequisites for upholding different, even contradictory points of view on this issue, which was then realized, primarily in opposition to the theory of Mencius, and put forward by another major Confucian of antiquity - Xun-tzu (3rd century BC). BC) doctrine of "evil nature" ( xing uh) a person. V Lun yue it is reported that “it was impossible to hear the reasoning of the Teacher (ie Confucius. - A.K.) about nature ( syn) and the heavenly Way- tao"(V, 13), but there is also a fundamentally important statement of Confucius:" By nature [people] are close to each other, but by habits they are far from each other "(XVII, 2). Most likely, this statement contains the idea of ​​the unity of human nature and its neutrality in relation to good and evil, which become characteristic of a person under the influence of external circumstances.

Mencius, developing the Teacher's idea of ​​the common nature of all people, which was most clearly expressed in his thesis: "The perfectly wise and I (we) are homogeneous" ( Mencius, VI A, 7), defined this essence as primordial goodness: "The human nature of good" ( Ren Xing Shan Ye), and this is inherent in it in the same way as water - the property of flowing downward ( Mencius, IV A, 2, III A, 1).

By initial kindness, Mencius understood mainly the four innate specific qualities of a person, with their source having an immediate spontaneous feeling, and the end - conscious behavior: “All people have a heart that cannot bear [the suffering of others]. Any person who suddenly sees a child ready to fall into a well will have a frightened and fearful, condolent and compassionate heart. And this is not due to the inner closeness with the parents of the child, not from the desire to have a good reputation among neighbors and friends, and not from disgust at the fact that the child will burst into screams. Hence it is clear that he who does not have a sympathetic and compassionate heart is not a person who does not have a heart that is ashamed [for himself] and indignant [at another] heart - not a person who does not have a heart that refuses [himself] and yields to [another] heart is not a person who does not have an affirming and denying heart is not a man. A sympathetic and compassionate heart is the beginning of humanity ( ren), ashamed [of itself] and indignant [at the other] heart is the beginning of due justice ( and), denying [itself] and yielding [to another] heart - the beginning of decency ( whether 2), affirming and denying the heart - the beginning of rationality ( zhi). These four beginnings belong to man, just as four limbs belong to him ( sy ty)» ( Mencius, II A, 6); “Humanity, due justice, decency and rationality are not embedded in me from the outside, they are primordially for me ( gu 1) are inherent "( Mencius, VI A, 6). The natural conclusion from this was the recognition that "every person can become [perfectly wise] Yao or Shun" ( Mencius, VI B, 2).

Interpreting kindness as an initial property of human nature, Mencius not only developed, but also revised the views of Confucius, who linked the concept of kindness ( shan) with the highest category of human beings: “I have not seen a perfectly wise person. Seeing a noble husband is enough. Kind ( shan) I have not seen the person. To see one who has constancy is enough "( Lun yu, Vii, 26). V Zuo Zhuang(Cheng-gun, 15 y.). In a work attributed by tradition to the brush of Zuo Qiuming, a student and contemporary of Confucius, this idea is expressed by the maxim: “A good person is a foundation ( ji 2) heaven and earth ". Mencius, on the other hand, greatly strengthened the thesis about the innateness of goodness to each person, expressing it with the help of a correlative syn categories qing("Natural properties, feelings, sensuality"): "As for their (people) natural properties ( qing), then [those] can be considered good ”(VI A, 6).

Semantically hieroglyph shan("Good") goes far beyond ethics, penetrating into the aesthetic (with the meaning of "beauty" - cf. "good fellow") praxeological (with the meaning "skill" - cf. "good master") and other normative-evaluative spheres. In Chinese philosophy, this universal normative-evaluative category also has an ontological meaning: according to Zhou and (Xi ci zhuan, I, 4/5), “good” is “a continuation of the Path- tao". Therefore, Mencius realized the realization of his good nature by a person as a way of following the Path. tao and establishing harmony with the world. Dai Zhen's Mencius tzu and shu zheng("The meaning of the terms Mencius in interpretive testimonies ”, tsz. 3) explained this position: “The goodness of every deed means its coherence ( heh 3) with the sky ". The basis of the "heavenly Way - tao"Mencius, like his teacher Zi-Si in Zhong Yune, called "authenticity" ( cheng), the care of which constitutes the “human Way- tao", Allowing you to merge with the universe and comprehend it:" All the darkness of things has fullness in me. Turning to yourself (literally: to your bodily personality - shen), to find authenticity - there is no greater joy than this! " ( Mencius, IV A, 12, VII A, 4). Way- tao perfect wise rulers of ideal antiquity is reduced only to filial piety ( xiao) and brotherly love ( ti), but in general it is a combination of man and humanity ( Mencius, VI 6, 2, VII B, 16). If Confucius estimated “the middle of the Way- tao» ( zhong tao) as insufficiency ( Lun yu, Vi, 12), then Mencius saw in this (or "middle Way- tao») Harmonious state ( Mencius, VII B, 37).

Although the meaning of human existence is “the exhaustion of one's Way tao", Many follow it without realizing it ( Mencius, VII A, 2, 5). Heavenly Way- tao predetermined, but in some ways also depends on the individual nature (Mencius, VII B, 24). Predestination ( min) - this is an external assignment: “Achieving - you achieve, dropping - you lose, while achieving - is useful for achievement, since it concerns the prisoner in oneself. But if you strive for what has the Way tao, and to achieve that which possesses predestination, then to achieve is useless for achievement, since it concerns the prisoner outside "( Mencius, VII A, 3). As something external predetermination by the subject himself can be either "affirmed" ( li min), or "removable" ( fan min) (Mencius, VII A, 1, I B, 4). Following Confucius, who said that “without knowing predestination, one cannot become a noble man” and that he himself “at fifty [years] learned the heavenly predestination” ( Lun yu, XX, 3, II, 4), Mencius confirmed the possibility of cognition of predestination and the corresponding choice "correct" ( zheng) lines of behavior, which allowed him, taking ascending to Shu Jinu and Shih Jinu the concept of "heavenly predestination" ( tian min) and recognizing the omnipotence of Heaven, to avoid the extremes of fatalism: “There is nothing that would not be predetermined, but only the correct [predetermination] should be perceived. Therefore, he who knows predestination will not stand under a hanging [and ready to collapse] wall. Die after exhausting your Path- tao, Is the correct predestination. To die in the stocks and chains [of the criminal] is not a correct predestination ”( Mencius, VII A, 2). Proceeding from such differentiation, Mencius substantiated the legality of the change of state, including dynastic, power as a natural transition of “heavenly predestination” to a worthy ruler from an unworthy ruler who loses it himself and automatically turns into a commoner who usurped the throne: “Whoever harms humanity is called a pest whoever harms due justice is called a villain. A man who is a pest and a villain is called a renegade peasant. I heard that they executed the renegade peasant Zhou, but have not yet heard that they killed the sovereign (Zhou, the last in the Yin dynasty, 11th century BC) "( Mencius, IB, 8, 3).

The universal substrate of both active and cognitive interaction of a subject with an object in Mencius is an air-like "pneuma" ( qi), which is a single spiritual-bodily dynamic substance of the entire universe and man as an integral psychophysical being. Pneuma is also the "smooth morning air ( ping tribute zhi qi), and "body filler" ( ti ji chun), and obeying the will ( zhi 3), growing from the "accumulation of due justice" ( ji and) and the correspondence of the Path- tao"Immense spirit" ( hao zhan zhi qi), stretching between heaven and earth ( Mencius, VI A, 8, II A, 2).

By radically universalizing "due justice" ( and), interpreting it as the most important spirit-forming and even psychosomatic factor that determines “the road ( lu) of a person ", Mencius combined this category with the central Confucius" humanity "( ren) as the main characteristics that distinguish people from animals, and this pair, in turn, expanded into the conceptual structure of "four principles" ( Si Duan): "Humanity - due justice - decency - rationality" ( Ren and Li Zhi), which became the basis of the Confucian understanding of all human existence ( Mencius, IV B, 19, VI A, 11, II A, 6, VI A, 6). Obstruction of humanity and proper justice leads to the fact that animals begin to devour people, and people - each other. Such "bestiality" ( qin show) are fraught with Yang Zhu's teachings of "doing for oneself" ( wei woo, cm. Wei) and Mo Dee ( Mo-tzu) about "uniting love" ( jian ah) to all, meaning the rejection of the sovereign and the father, respectively ( wu jun wu fu) (Mencius, III B, 9).

In Confucius, humanity was represented as a specific attribute of a "noble man" ( Jun Tzu), not inherent in the "insignificant person" ( xiao ren) (Lun yu, IV, 5, XIV, 6/7, 28/30), and already with his closest followers, and above all with Mencius, she became not only the duty of the ruler, but also the universal beginning of the human personality and relations between people ( Mencius, III A, 4, VII B, 16). Mencius formulated the homonymous maxim “Humanity ( ren) Is a person ( ren 1) ", detailed in the definitions:" Acquisition ( te 1) a person for the Celestial Empire is called humanity "and" Humanity is the heart of a person "( Mencius, II A, 6, VI A, 6, VII). Yielding to family closeness ( qin), humanity surpasses "affection-love-pity" ( ah) and determines the attitude towards everything that exists: “A noble man in relation to things is such that he has a liking for them, but is not humane with them; in relation to the people, such that he is humane with them, but not closely related to them. Being kindred close to your parents, you will be humane with the people; being humane with the people, you will have a liking for things "( Mencius, VII A, 45). Mencius also summarized Confucius' views on the socio-political significance of humanity as a factor of “appeasement ( pin) and ordering ( zhi 8) Celestial Empire "in the concept of" humane government "( ren zheng) (Mencius, I A, 5, I B, 11,12, II A, 1, III A, 3, 4, IV A, 11, 14/15), suggesting that “the head of state who loves humanity has no enemies in the Celestial Empire "( Mencius, IV A, 8), and later became the ideological stamp of Confucian orthodoxy.

"Humane government", corresponding to the grace-based "Way of the [true] sovereign" ( wang dao) and the opposite of the power-based "Path of the Hegemon" ( ba dao), meant mitigating punishments, reducing taxes, improving agricultural work, preserving natural resources, improving people in filial piety ( xiao), brotherly love ( ti 2), fidelity ( zhong 2) and reliability ( blue 2) to serve senior relatives and superiors ( Mencius, II A, 3, I A, 5). The goal of all these events was declared to be "saving the people" ( bao min), since in the scale of priorities established by Mencius "the people are the most valuable, the spirits of the earth and cereals follow them, and the ruler is the least valuable" ( Mencius, VII B, 14).

Opposing the legalistic model of governance, which required the supremacy of administrative and legal laws ( F), Mencius not only saw in her the "entanglement of the people" ( van min), but generally asserted the superiority of education ( jiao) over control ( zheng 3): “Good governance gives way to good education in achieving ( te 1) the people. Good governance is fearfully honored by the people, and good upbringing is loved ( ah). Good governance achieves the wealth of the people, and good education - the heart of the people ”( Mencius, VII A, 14).

For the traditional Chinese love of people, Mencius created a theoretical basis by proclaiming "homogeneity" ( tong lei) of all people, each of whom can become perfectly wise ( sheng) (Mencius, VI A, 7), which in turn stimulated the emergence of such a fundamental institution of Chinese statehood as the examination system for selecting officials, which began to take shape under the influence of Mencius' follower Dong Zhongshu (2nd century BC) in 124 BC .NS. and lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. However, without looking away from reality, Mencius admitted that in practice people can differ significantly from each other due to external influences and "the inability to exhaustively [reveal] their talent ( tsai)» ( Mencius, VI A, 6).

The main divide between people is due to the state of their "heart" ( blue), i.e. psyche: “Without permanent property, only educated servicemen are capable of having a permanent heart ( shi 11), [simple] people, having no permanent property, do not have a permanent heart ", therefore, for the normal existence of society, a primary division of labor into mental and physical is necessary, interpreted as a division into leaders who carry out" the affairs of big people "( da ren zhi shi), and subordinates who carry out the "affairs of small people" ( xiao ren zhi shi): “Some strain the heart, and some strain [physical] strength. Those who strain the heart control [other] people, and those who strain [physical] strength are controlled by [other] people. Those ruled by [other] people feed [other] people, and those ruled by [other] people feed [other] people. Such is the pervasive due justice in the Celestial Empire "( Mencius, I A, 7, III A, 3, 4).

Being one of the pillars of Confucian rationalism, Mencius directly pointed out the importance of the material factor in the life of the people: “In good years, most young people are kind, and in times of famine they are evil. Such a difference does not come from those natural qualities that Heaven gave them, but because [hunger] forced their hearts to plunge [into evil] ”( Mencius, VI A, 7). Consequently, with the correct social structure, the people have "permanent property" (or "permanent occupation" - Heng Chan) and sufficient prosperity, the most important means of achieving which Mencius considered the system of "well fields" ( jing tian), embodying the utopian ideal of land tenure, land use and distribution of the products of agricultural labor ( Mencius, III A, 3). It involved the division of a land plot in the form of a square with a side of 1 li (about 500 m) and an area of ​​900 mu into nine equal fields, like a hieroglyph jing 6 ("well"); the eight fields bordering the center were in a private ( sy 1) use, and the central field was communal ( gong 2) and served to collect rent in kind. Every eight peasant farms, united by one "well land" ( jing di), were presented as an autonomous community, united by mutual assistance and responsibility.

The spatial-numerical numerological ( xiang shu zhi xue) the scheme of the nine-cell square "canon" ( jing 1 , cm... JING WEI; HE TU I LO SHU) Mencius also used when describing the territory of all China, “consisting of nine squares with a side [for each] of 1 thousand whether» ( Mencius, I A, 7). In comprehending history, he also relied on similar constructions, in particular, he expounded the theory of a sequential change of order and turmoil ( and zhi and luan) in synchronized social and natural processes, which are subject to cyclicity in three periods of five hundred years each ( Mencius, II B, 13, III A, 2, III B, 9, VII A, 30, VII B, 38), which corresponds to the numerological "trinity and five" ( san wu). The application of this methodology reveals a deep connection between Mencius and one of the largest representatives of ancient Chinese numerology Zou Yan (4-3 centuries BC), who may have been his follower ( Shi ji, tsz. 74).

From the recognition of the “fullness of all things” present in the inner world of the subject, Mencius deduced that “the one who exhausts his heart cognizes his nature, and cognition of his nature means cognition of Heaven” ( Mencius, VII A, 1). Such "exhaustion" ( jin), which turns self-knowledge into knowledge of the world, is feasible thanks to innate knowledge and skill: “What a person is capable of without learning is his benevolence ( liang zhi); what he knows without reasoning is his prudence ( liang zhi)» ( Mencius, VII A, 15). Mencius was the first in Confucianism to draw a clear distinction between the "thinking organ - the heart", or the "great body" ( yes ti), comprehending things, and "not thinking organs - ears and eyes", or "small bodies" ( xiao ti), carried away by things and misled by them ( Mencius, VI A, 15). Hence followed the recommendation "to nourish the heart" ( yang xin) by means of "belittling desires ( yu) ":" A person who has few desires, although he loses something, but little. A person who has many desires, although he retains something, but little "( Mencius, VII B, 35). In general, this introverted cognitive attitude was the starting point for the development of the neo-Confucian "doctrine of the heart" ( xin xue) and especially the Janminist ( cm... WAN YANMIN) of the concept of "well-meaning".

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