Radugin and cultural studies textbook. Radugin A.A

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Compiler and executive editor prof. A. A. Radugin
Moscow

2001 Publishing house

Preface 6

Section one. The essence and purpose of culture 6

Chapter 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies 6

1. The concept of culture. Culture as the semantic world of man 7

1.1. Concept of symbol. Symbolic forms of culture. 8

1.2. Man as a creator and creation of culture 8

1.3. Dialogue of cultures 9

1.4. Basic forms of spiritual culture 10

2. Cultural studies as a humanitarian science 11

2.1. Origins of cultural studies as a science 11

2.2. Unity of understanding and explanation in cultural studies. Culturology as the implementation of dialogue between cultures 11

LITERATURE 12

Chapter 2. Basic schools and concepts of cultural studies 12

1. Hegel’s philosophy as a theory of culture 12

2. Philosophy of culture by Oswald Spengler 15

3. Man, creativity, culture in Berdyaev’s philosophy 17

3.1. The free human spirit as a creator of culture. 18

3.2. Free spirit And symbolic forms crops: internal contradiction cultural creativity 18

4. Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: Freud’s concept 19

5. Culture and the collective unconscious: the concept of Carl Gustav Jung 21

5.1. Collective unconscious and its archetypes 21

5.2. Culture and the Problem of Integrity human soul 22

6. “Challenge and Response” - the driving spring in the development of culture: the concept of Arnold Toynbee 23

7. Value as a fundamental principle of culture (P. A. Sorokin) 24

8. Culture as a set of sign systems (structuralism of C. Lévi-Strauss, M. Foucault, etc.) 25

9. The concept of gaming culture (J. Huizinga, X. Ortega y Gasset, E. Fink). 26

LITERATURE 27

Chapter 3. Culture as a system 28

1. Structural integrity of culture 28

1.1. Material and spiritual aspects of culture. Man is a system-forming factor in the development of culture 28

1.2. Culture as a normative-value and cognitive activity 30

2. Multidimensionality of culture as a system 33

2.1. Purpose of culture 33

2.2. Interaction of nature and culture. Ecological culture of human activity 34

2.3. The relationship between culture and society 36

LITERATURE 39

Chapter 4. Organizational culture and entrepreneurial culture 39

1. The concept of enterprise culture. Value aspect of organizational culture 39

2. Basic elements and features of the functioning of the sign-symbolic system in the enterprise 43

3. Typology of organizational culture. The state of organizational culture at Russian enterprises 44

LITERATURE 46

Chapter 5. Mass and elite culture 46

1. Concept, historical conditions and stages of formation popular culture 46

2. Economic prerequisites and social functions of “mass” culture 48

3. Philosophical foundations popular culture 49

LITERATURE 53

Chapter 6. The relationship between ideological and humanistic trends in artistic culture 53

1. The concepts of “ideology” and “humanism” in modern social philosophy and cultural studies 53

2. The relationship between ideological and humanistic trends in the modern artistic process. Universal in the system of artistic culture 54

3. Evolution of views on the relationship between ideological and humanistic tendencies 56

LITERATURE 59

Section two. Development of world culture 59

Chapter 1. Myth as a form of culture 59

1. Mystical participation as the main relation of myth 59

2. Myth and magic 61

3. Man and community: myth as a denial of individuality and freedom 62

LITERATURE 64

Chapter 2. Culture of the Ancient East 64

1. Social and ideological foundations cultures of the Ancient East 64

1.1. Eastern despotism as social basis ancient cultures 65

1.2. Myth, nature and state in the cultures of the Ancient East 66

1.3. Combining humanity and statehood as a problem of Confucian culture 67

1.4. Taoism: freedom as dissolution in nature 69

1.5. Buddhism: freedom as an internal withdrawal from life, a complete negation of being 71

LITERATURE 77

Chapter 3. History of ancient culture 77

1. Characteristics ancient greek culture 77

2. The main stages of development of Hellenic artistic culture 81

3. Artistic culture Ancient Rome 85

LITERATURE 88

Chapter 4. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture 88

1. The fundamental difference between Christianity and pagan beliefs 89

2. Historical background of Christianity 89

3. Fundamentals of the Christian faith. The Discovery of Personality and Freedom 89

4. Why Christianity became a world religion 91

5. Spiritual and moral problems of the Sermon on the Mount 91

5.1. Contradiction between Spirit and World 92

5.2. Paradoxes of Christian morality 92

6. The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture 93

Literature 94

Chapter 5. Culture Western Europe in the Middle Ages 94

1. Periodization of medieval culture 94

2. Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality 95

3. Scientific culture in the Middle Ages 96

4. Artistic culture medieval Europe 98

4.1. Romanesque style 98

4.3. Medieval Music and Theater 101

5. “Spiritual forests” of modern culture 102

LITERATURE 103

Chapter 6. Culture of the Western European Renaissance 103

1. Humanism - the value basis of Renaissance culture 103

2. Attitude to ancient and medieval culture 105

3. Features of the artistic culture of the Renaissance 106

3.1. Italian Renaissance 107

3.2. Northern Renaissance 108

LITERATURE 109

Chapter 7. The Reformation and its cultural and historical significance 109

1. Cultural and historical conditions and prerequisites of the Reformation 109

2. Martin Luther's Spiritual Revolution 110

3. Spiritual foundations of the new morality: Work as “worldly asceticism” 111

4. Freedom and reason in Protestant culture 112

LITERATURE 113

Chapter 8. Culture of the Enlightenment 114

1. The main dominants of the culture of European enlightenment 114

2. Style and genre features of art of the 18th century 115

3. The flourishing of theatrical and musical culture 116

4. Synthesis of ethics, aesthetics and literature in the works of the great French educators 117

LITERATURE 120

Chapter 9. The cultural crisis of the 20th century and ways to overcome it 120

1. The contradiction between man and machine as a source of cultural crisis. The problem of human alienation from culture 120

2. Dialogue of cultures as a means of overcoming their crisis 123

LITERATURE 124

Chapter 10. Artistic culture of the 20th century: modernism and postmodernism 124

1. Worldview foundations of modernist art 124

2. The variety of types and forms of artistic culture of modernism 125

3. Attempts to create synthetic art forms 132

4. Postmodernism: deepening aesthetic experiments of the 20th century 133

LITERATURE 134

Section three. The main stages of the development of Russian culture 134

Chapter 1. Formation of Russian culture 134

1. Pagan culture of the ancient Slavs 135

2. The adoption of Christianity is a turning point in the history of Russian culture 137

3. Culture of Kievan Rus 138

LITERATURE 141

Chapter 2. The flourishing of Russian culture 141

1. Culture of the Moscow Kingdom (XIV-XVII centuries) 141

2. Culture of Imperial Russia (beginning of the 17th - end of the 19th centuries) 146

LITERATURE 150

Chapter 3. “Silver Age” of Russian culture 150

1. Features of Russian culture at the “turn of centuries” 150

2. Artistic culture " silver age» 151

LITERATURE 156

Ulava 4. The Soviet period of development of Russian culture 156

1. Ideological attitudes of communists in relation to artistic culture 157

2. The first post-October decade in the development of Russian culture 157

4. Sociocultural situation of the 60-70s of the XX century in Russia 160

5. Soviet culture of the 80s of the XX century 161

LITERATURE 162

Chapter 5. Protection of national cultural heritage 162

1. On continuity in the development of culture. Organizational basis for the protection of national cultural heritage 162

2. Russian estate - the most important part of cultural heritage 164

3. Revival of religious and cult culture 164

4. Program of the Russian Cultural Foundation “Small Towns of Russia” 166

5. The fate of national artistic crafts and crafts of Russia 167

LITERATURE 168

Conclusion 168

Reviewers: Titov S. N.,

Doctor of Philosophy,

Professor of the Department of Philosophy

Voronezh State University; Department of History and Theory of Culture, Voronezh State Pedagogical University

On the cover: a fragment of the painting by the artist J.B.S. Chardin “Still Life with Attributes of Art”

Culturology: Textbook / Compiled and responsible. editor A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2001. - 304 p.

ISBN 5-88860-046-6

The manual is written in accordance with the “State requirements (Federal component) for the mandatory minimum content and level of training of higher school graduates in the cycle “General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines”. It examines the essence and purpose of culture: the main schools, concepts and trends in cultural studies, the history of world and domestic culture, the preservation of world and national cultural heritage.

Intended as a teaching aid for university students, technical schools, college students, gymnasiums, and high schools.

Without announcement ISBN 5-88860-046-6

BBK 71.0.ya73

I A.A. Radugin, 200110 Preface

Section I. ESSENCE AND PURPOSE OF CULTURE

Chapter 12 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies

1. The concept of culture. Culture as the semantic world of man

2. Cultural studies as a humanities science

22 Chapter 2. Basic schools and concepts of cultural studies

1. Hegel's philosophy as a theory of culture

2. Philosophy of culture by Oswald Spengler

3. Man, creativity, culture

In Berdyaev's philosophy

4. Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: Freud’s concept

5. Culture and the collective unconscious:

Concept of C. G. Jung

6. "Call and Response" - moving spring

In the development of culture: the concept of A. Toynbee

7. Value as a fundamental principle of culture

(P. A. Sorokin)

8. Culture as a set of sign systems (structuralism of C. Lévi-Strauss, M. Foucault, etc.)

9. The concept of gaming culture (J. Huizinga, X. Ortega y Gasset, E. Fink)

50 Chapter 3. Culture as a system

1. Structural integrity of culture

2. Multidimensionality of culture as a system

70 Chapter 4. Organizational culture and entrepreneurial culture

1. The concept of enterprise culture.

The value aspect of organizational culture

2. Basic elements and features of operation

Sign-symbolic system at the enterprise

3. Typology of organizational culture.

State of organizational culture

At Russian enterprises

Chapter 83 5. Mass and elite culture

1. Concept, historical conditions and stages of the formation of mass culture

2. Economic prerequisites and social functions of “mass” culture

3. Philosophical foundations of mass culture 4. Elite culture as the antipode of mass culture

94 Chapter 6. Relationships between ideological and humanistic trends in artistic culture

1. The concepts of “ideology” and “humanism”

In modern social philosophy and cultural studies

2. The relationship between ideological and humanistic

Trends in the modern artistic process. Universal in the system of artistic culture

3. Evolution of views on the relationship between ideological and humanistic tendencies

Section II. DEVELOPMENT OF WORLD CULTURE

Chapter 106 1. Myth as a form of culture

1. Mystical participation as the main relation of myth

2. Myth and magic

3. Man and community: myth as a denial of individuality and freedom

Chapter 116 2. Culture of the Ancient East

1. Social and ideological foundations of the culture of the Ancient East

2. Artistic and aesthetic features culture of the Ancient East

139 chapter 3. History of ancient culture

1. Characteristic features of ancient Greek culture 2. Main stages in the development of Hellenic culture

Artistic culture 3. Artistic culture of Ancient Rome

158 Chapter 4. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture

1. The fundamental difference between Christianity and pagan beliefs

2. Historical background of Christianity

3. Fundamentals of the Christian faith. Discovery of personality and freedom

4. Why Christianity became a world religion

5. Spiritual and moral problems of the Sermon on the Mount

6. The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture

169 chapter 5. Culture of Western Europe in the Middle Ages

1. Periodization of medieval culture

2. Christian consciousness -

The basis of medieval mentality

3. Scientific culture in the Middle Ages

4. Artistic culture of medieval Europe

5 “Spiritual forests” of modern culture

185 Chapter 6. Culture of the Western European Renaissance

1. Humanism is the value basis of the Renaissance culture

2. Attitude to ancient and medieval culture 3. Features of the artistic culture of the Renaissance

196 chapter 7. The Reformation and its cultural and historical significance

1. Cultural and historical conditions and prerequisites of the Reformation

2. Martin Luther's Spiritual Revolution

3. Spiritual foundations of the new morality: work as “secular asceticism”

4. Freedom and reason in Protestant culture

204 Chapter 8. Culture of the Enlightenment

1. The main dominants of the culture of the European Enlightenment

2. Style and genre features

Arts of the 18th century 3. The flourishing of theatrical and musical culture

4. Synthesis of ethics, aesthetics and literature in the works of the great French educators

215 Chapter 9. The cultural crisis of the 20th century and ways to overcome it

1. The contradiction between man and machine

As a source of cultural crisis. The problem of human alienation from culture

2. Dialogue of cultures as a means of overcoming their crisis

223 Chapter 10. Artistic culture of the 20th century: modernism and postmodernism

1. Worldview foundations of modernist art

2. The variety of types and forms of artistic culture of modernism

3. Attempts to create synthetic art forms

4. Postmodernism: deepening aesthetic

Experiments of the 20th century

Section III. MAIN STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

Chapter 242 1. Formation of Russian culture

1. Pagan culture of the ancient Slavs

2. The adoption of Christianity is a turning point in the history of Russian culture

3. Culture of Kievan Rus

255 chapter 2. The flourishing of Russian culture

1. Culture of the Moscow Kingdom (XVI-XVII centuries)

2. Culture of Imperial Russia (beginning of the 17th - end of the 19th century)

271 chapter 3. “Silver Age” of Russian culture

1. Features of Russian culture at the “turn of the century”

2. Artistic culture of the “Silver Age”

282 Chapter 4. The Soviet period of development of Russian culture

1. Ideological attitudes of communists in relation to artistic culture

2. The first post-October decade in the development of Russian culture

3. Totalitarianism and culture (30-50s)

4. Sociocultural situation of the 60-70s of the XX century in Russia

5. Soviet culture of the 80s of the XX century

292 Chapter 5. Protection of national cultural heritage

1. On continuity in the development of culture. Organizational basis for the protection of national cultural heritage 2. The Russian estate is the most important part of the cultural heritage

3. Revival of religious and cult culture

4. Program of the Russian Cultural Foundation “Small Towns of Russia”

5. The fate of national artistic crafts and crafts of Russia

303 Conclusion

Preface........................................................ ........................................................ .............6

Section one. The essence and purpose of culture.................................................... .....7

Chapter 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies.................................................... .................7

1. The concept of culture. Culture as the semantic world of man...................................................7

1.1. Concept of symbol. Symbolic forms of culture. ...........................................8

1.2. Man as a creator and creation of culture.................................................. ................9

1.3. Dialogue of cultures................................................... ........................................................ ......9

1.4. Basic forms of spiritual culture................................................................... ...........................10

2. Culturology as a humanitarian science................................................... ........................11

2.1. The origins of cultural studies as a science.................................................... ...............................11

2.2. Unity of understanding and explanation in cultural studies. Culturology as the implementation of a dialogue of cultures...........11

LITERATURE................................................. ........................................................ ...................12

Chapter 2. Basic schools and concepts of cultural studies.................................................... .............12

1. Hegel’s philosophy as a theory of culture.................................................... ...............................12

2. Philosophy of culture by Oswald Spengler.................................................... ...........................14

3. Man, creativity, culture in Berdyaev’s philosophy............................................. ..........17

3.1. The free human spirit as a creator of culture. ........................................................ ....17

3.2. Free spirit and symbolic forms of culture: the internal contradiction of cultural creativity..................17

4. Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: Freud’s concept.18

5. Culture and the collective unconscious: the concept of Carl Gustav Jung 20

5.1. Collective unconscious and its archetypes....................................20

Radugin A. A.

Culturology textbook

Gaudeamus gitur Juvenes dum sunmus! Post incundam iuventutem, Post molestam senectutem Nos habebit humus TSY sunt, qui ante nos in mundo fuere? Vadite ad superos, Transite ad inferos Quos si vis videre!

Vita nostra brevis est, Brevi finietur; Venit mors velociter, Rapit nos atrociter, Nemini parcetur!

Vivat academy! Vivant professors! Vivat membrum quodiibet! Vivat membra quaelibet! Semper sin in flore!

Compiler and executive editor prof. A.A. Radugin God's gift beauty; and if you estimate without flattery, then you have to admit: a gift

Not everyone has this, Beauty needs care, without it beauty dies, Even if its face is similar to Venus itself.

Moscow 1998 Publishing house

Preface Currently, Russia is undergoing a reform of the entire education system.

The main focus of this reform is its humanization. Humanization of education means for our country a radical reorientation of value systems, normative regulators, goals and objectives of the educational process. From now on, the interests of each individual person should be placed at the forefront of education. Educational institutions must provide such conditions for the educational process so that a school graduate can become an amateur subject public life. This orientation means creating the necessary prerequisites for the development of all creative abilities of students: the harmonious development of their intellectual, professional, aesthetic and moral qualities. In other words, the task of higher education is to prepare not just a specialist in some narrow field of production and management, but a person capable of various areas activities that consciously make decisions on political, ideological, moral, aesthetic and other issues.

The humanitarization of education is expected to play a significant role in achieving this goal. Mastering a new discipline - cultural studies - is expected to play a key role in the humanitarian training of students.

Developed by the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Higher Education “Requirements for the mandatory minimum content and level of training of higher school graduates in the cycle “General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines” in the field of cultural studies set the following main tasks. The graduate must: 1. Understand and be able to explain the phenomenon of culture, its role in human life, have an idea of ​​the methods of acquisition,

storage and transmission of basic cultural values.

2. Know the forms and types of cultures, the main cultural and historical centers and regions of the world, the patterns of their functioning and development, know the history of Russian culture, its place in the system of world culture and civilization.

3. Take care of the preservation and enhancement of national and world cultural heritage.

In accordance with these goals, the main program requirements (didactic units) are formulated. The entire content of the proposed textbook is aimed at fulfilling these requirements.

The team of authors who prepared this manual expresses the hope that mastering its content will allow students to increase their cultural level and understand complex problems general theory of culture, the main stages of development of world and domestic culture.

A. (section I, chapter 2 § 9; section II, chapter 2, § 2; chapter 9,10); Assoc. Zharov S. N. (Section I, Chapter 1; Chapter 2, § 16; Section II, Chapter 2 § l; Chapter 4.7; Associate Professor Ishchenko E. N. (Section II, Chapter 8); Assoc. Laletin D. A. (section II, chapter 5); prof. Matveev A.K. (section I, chapter 3); Assoc. Parkhomenko I. T. (section I, chapter 5.6; section III, chapter 4, b); prof. Radugin A. A. (preface, section I, chapter 2, § 7.8, chapter 4); Assoc. Simkina N. N. (section II, chapter b (co-authored with Kurochkina L. Ya.).

Compiled and executive editor, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor Radugin A. A.

Section one. The essence and purpose of culture Chapter 1 Culture as a subject of cultural studies.

1. The concept of culture. Culture as the semantic world of man

In everyday consciousness, “culture” acts as a collective image that unites art, religion, science, etc. Culturology uses the concept of culture, which reveals the essence of human existence as the realization of creativity and freedom (see: Berdyaev N. A. Philosophy of Freedom. The meaning of creativity. M., 1989; Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990; Mezhuev V. M. Culture as a philosophical problem // Issues of philosophy. It is culture that distinguishes man from all other creatures.

Of course, here we must distinguish between, firstly, freedom as an inalienable spiritual potential of a person and, secondly, awareness and conscious social realization of freedom. Without the first, culture simply cannot appear, but the second is achieved only at relatively late stages of its development. Further, when we talk about culture, we do not mean some individual creative act of a person, but creativity as a universal relationship of a person to the world.

The concept of culture denotes the universal attitude of man to the world, through which man creates the world and himself. * Each culture is a unique Universe, created by a person’s specific attitude to the world and to himself. In other words, by studying different cultures, we study not just books, cathedrals or archaeological finds - we discover other human worlds in which people lived and felt differently than we do.* Each culture is a way of creative self-realization of a person. Therefore, understanding other cultures enriches us not only with new knowledge, but also with new creative experience.

However, so far we have only taken the first step towards a correct understanding and definition of culture. How is man's universal relationship to the world realized? How is it fixed in human experience and is passed on from generation to generation? To answer these questions means to characterize culture as a subject of cultural studies.

A person's relationship to the world is determined by meaning. Meaning relates any phenomenon, any object to a person: if something is devoid of meaning, it ceases to exist for a person. What is the meaning for cultural studies? Meaning is the content of human existence (including internal existence), taken in a special role: to be a mediator in a person’s relationship with the world and with himself. It is meaning that determines what we seek and what we discover in the world and in ourselves.

Meaning must be distinguished from meaning, i.e., an objectively expressed image or concept. Even if the meaning is expressed in an image or concept, in itself it is not necessarily objective. For example, one of the most important meanings - the thirst for love - does not at all imply an objective image of any person (otherwise each of us would know in advance who he would love). True meaning is addressed not only to the mind, but also to the uncontrollable depths of the soul and directly (besides our awareness) affects our feelings and will. The meaning is not always realized by a person, and not every meaning can be expressed rationally: most meanings are hidden in the unconscious depths of the human soul. But those other meanings can also become universally significant, uniting many people and acting as the basis of their thoughts and feelings. It is these meanings that form culture.

Man endows the whole world with these meanings, and the world appears for him in its universal human significance. And a person simply does not need and is uninteresting in another world. N. A. Meshcheryakova rightly distinguishes two initial (basic) types of value relations - the world can act for a person as “one’s own” and as “alien” (Meshcheryakova N. A. Science in the value dimension // Free Thought. 1992. No. 12. P. 3444). Culture is a universal way in which a person makes the world “his own,” turning it into the House of human (meaningful) existence (see: Buber M. Yai Ty. M., 1993. P. 61,82,94). Thus, the whole world turns into a carrier of human meanings, into a world of culture. Even the starry sky or the depths of the ocean belong to culture, since a piece of the human soul is given to them, since they carry human meaning. If it were not for this meaning, then a person would not look at the night sky, poets would not write poetry, and scientists would not devote all the strength of their souls to the study of nature and, therefore, would not make great discoveries. A theoretical thought is not born immediately, and for it to appear, a person needs to be interested in the mysteries of the world, he needs wonder at the mysteries of existence (it was not for nothing that Plato said that knowledge begins with surprise). But there is no interest and surprise where there are no cultural meanings that direct the minds and feelings of many people to master the world and their own souls.

From here we can give the following definition of culture. Culture is a universal way of creative self-realization of a person through the establishment of meaning, the desire to reveal and affirm the meaning of human life in its correlation with the meaning of existence. Culture appears to a person as a world of meaning that inspires people and unites them into a community (nation, religious or professional group, etc.). This world of meaning is passed down from generation to generation and determines people’s way of being and perception of the world.

At the heart of each such semantic world is the dominant meaning, the semantic dominant of culture. The semantic dominant of culture is that main meaning, the general attitude of a person to the world, which determines the nature of all other meanings and relationships. At the same time, culture and its semantic dominant can be realized differently, but the presence of semantic unity gives integrity to everything that people do and experience (see: Zharov S.N. Science and religion in the integral mechanisms of the development of knowledge // Natural science in the fight against religious worldview. M: Nauka, 1988. P. 1953). By uniting and inspiring people, culture gives them not only a common way of understanding the world, but also a way of mutual understanding and empathy, a language for expressing the subtlest movements of the soul. Availability of semantic

The dominant meaning of culture is created by the very possibility of cultural studies as a science: it is impossible to immediately embrace culture in all its aspects, but it is possible to identify, understand and analyze the dominant meaning. And then we need to study the bottling methods of its implementation, turn to the details and specific forms of its implementation.

But how is this system of meanings transmitted from one person to another? To answer this question, we must understand how the semantic world of culture is expressed and consolidated.

1.1. Concept of symbol. Symbolic forms of culture.

We know that a person expresses his thoughts and feelings with the help of signs. But culture is expressed not just in signs, but in symbols. The concept of symbol occupies a special place in cultural studies. A symbol is a sign, but of a very special kind. If a simple sign is, so to speak, a door to the objective world of meanings (images and concepts), then a symbol is a door to the non-objective world of meanings. Through symbols, the holy of holies of culture is revealed to our consciousness - meanings that live in the unconscious depths of the soul and connect people in a single type of experience of the world and themselves. Moreover, a genuine symbol does not simply “denote” the meaning, but carries within itself the fullness of its effective power. For example, an icon does not just mean God - for a believer, it expresses the Divine presence, and has the same “miraculous” power as the meaning it expresses, that is, the faith of the person himself. Or another example: in traditional military culture, a banner does not just designate this or that regiment, it carries honor itself, and losing the banner means losing honor. In this vein, the understanding of the symbol developed from Hegel to Jung and Spengler.

Culture expresses itself through a world of symbolic forms that are passed on from person to person, from generation to generation. But symbolic forms themselves are the external side of culture. Symbols become an expression of culture not in themselves, but only through human creative activity. If a person turns away from these symbols, then the symbolic world turns into a dead objective shell. Therefore, the concept of culture cannot be defined only through symbols; it is impossible to explicitly or implicitly identify culture and the symbolic world.

1.2. Man as a creator and creation of culture

Culture is the realization of human creativity and freedom, hence the diversity of cultures and forms of cultural development. However, the established culture easily acquires a semblance of independent life: it is enshrined in symbolic forms, which are inherited by each generation in a ready-made form and act as universally significant models. A supra-individual logic of culture is emerging that does not depend on the whim of an individual and determines the thoughts and feelings of a large group of people. Therefore, it would be fair to say that culture also creates a person. However, this formula will be true insofar as we remember that culture itself is a product of human creativity; It is man who through culture discovers and changes the world and himself (see: Svasyan K. A. Man as a creation and creator of culture // Issues of Philosophy. 1987. No. 6). Man is a creator, and only because of this circumstance is he a creation of culture.

"Here there is not only scientific, but also ethical problem: what is valuable in itself - a person or a culture? Sometimes they talk about the intrinsic value of culture, but this is only true in the sense that without culture a person cannot realize himself as a person, realize his spiritual potential. But ultimately, the value of culture is a derivative of the self-worth of a person.

Through culture, a person can become familiar with the creative achievements of many geniuses, making them a springboard for new creativity. But this communion occurs only when a person begins not just to contemplate cultural symbols, but to revive cultural meanings in his own soul and his own creativity. Culture and its meanings do not live on their own, but only through creative

the activity of the person inspired by them. If a person turns away from cultural meanings, then they die, and what remains from culture is a symbolic body from which the soul has left (see: O. Spengler. Decline of Europe. T. 1. M., 1993. P. 329).

Of course, in everyday life it is difficult to notice the dependence of culture on a person; rather, there is an inverse dependence. Culture is the basis of human creativity, but it also holds it within its semantic framework, in captivity of its symbolic patterns. But at turning points, in eras of great cultural revolutions, it suddenly becomes apparent that the old meanings no longer satisfy a person, that they constrain the developed human spirit. And then the human spirit breaks out of the captivity of old meanings in order to build a new foundation for creativity. Such a transition to new semantic foundations is the work of genius; talent solves only those problems that do not require going beyond the existing cultural foundation. Talented man often comes to the most unexpected discoveries, for he develops general principles deeper and further than most people are capable of doing. But to step beyond the limits is the destiny of only a genius. “In genius there is always immensity. (...) Genius is from “another world,” wrote Berdyaev (Berdyaev N.A. Philosophy of Freedom. Meaningfulness. M., 1989. P. 395).

New semantic foundations are created by individual creativity; they are born in the depths of human subjectivity. However, in order for a new culture to be born from here, it is necessary that these meanings be enshrined in symbolic forms and be recognized by other people as a model, and become semantic dominants. This process is social character and, as a rule, proceeds painfully and dramatically. The meaning born of genius is tested in the experiences of others, sometimes “edited” so that it can be more easily accepted as an article of faith, a scientific principle, or a new artistic style. And since the recognition of new semantic foundations occurs in sharp clashes with adherents of the old tradition, the happy fate of the new meaning does not at all mean a happy fate for its creator.

1.3. Dialogue of cultures

There are many cultures (types of culture) realized in human history. Each culture generates its own specific rationality, its own morality, its own art and is expressed in its own symbolic forms. The meanings of one culture are not completely translated into the language of another culture, which is sometimes interpreted as the incommensurability of different cultures and the impossibility of dialogue between them (see: Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T. 1. M., 1993). Meanwhile, such a dialogue is possible due to the fact that the origins of all cultures have a common creative source - man with his universality and freedom. It is not the cultures themselves who enter into dialogue, but people for whom the corresponding cultures outline specific semantic and symbolic boundaries. Firstly, a rich culture contains a lot of hidden possibilities that make it possible to build a semantic bridge to another culture; secondly, a creative person is able to go beyond the limitations imposed by the original culture. Therefore, being a creator of culture, a person is able to find a way of dialogue between different cultures (see: Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979).

Every culture is unique, and every culture has its own truths. But then how to assess the degree of cultural development? Perhaps we should recognize all cultures as absolutely equal? Many cultural scientists share this point of view. However, in our opinion, there are criteria for assessing culture. These criteria arise from the fact that the primary value is the person, the development of his personality and freedom. Therefore, the degree of development of culture is determined by its attitude to the freedom and dignity of man and the opportunities it provides for the creative self-realization of man as an individual.

1.4. Basic forms of spiritual culture

A person can realize his creativity in different ways, and the fullness of his creative self-expression is achieved through the creation and use of various cultural forms. Each of these forms has its own “specialized” semantic and symbolic system. We will briefly characterize only truly universal forms of spiritual culture, each of which expresses in its own way the essence of human existence.

Myth is not only the historically first form of culture, but also a dimension of human mental life, which persists even when myth loses its absolute dominance. The universal essence of myth is that it represents the unconscious semantic twinning of a person with the forces of immediate existence, be it the existence of nature or society. If myth acts as the only form of culture, then this twinning leads to the fact that a person does not distinguish meaning from a natural property, and a semantic (associative) relationship from a cause-and-effect one. Everything becomes animated, and nature appears as a world of formidable, but related to man, mythological creatures - demons and gods.

Religion also expresses a person’s need to feel connected to the foundations of existence. However, now man no longer seeks his foundations in the immediate life of nature. The gods of developed religions are in the realm of the otherworldly (transcendent). Unlike myth, here it is not nature that is deified, but the supernatural powers of man, and above all, the spirit with its freedom and creativity. By placing the divine on the other side of nature and understanding it as a supernatural absolute, developed religion freed man from mythological unity with nature and internal dependence from elemental forces and passions.

Morality arises after the myth goes into the past, where a person internally merged with the life of the collective and was controlled by various magical taboos that programmed his behavior at the level of the unconscious. Now a person requires self-control in conditions of relative internal autonomy from the team. This is how the first moral regulations arise - duty, shame and honor. With an increase in a person’s internal autonomy and the formation of a mature personality, such a moral regulator as conscience arises. Thus, morality appears as internal self-regulation in the sphere of freedom, and moral requirements for a person grow as this sphere expands. Developed morality is the realization of man’s spiritual freedom; it is based on the affirmation of man’s self-worth, regardless of the external expediency of nature and society.

Art is an expression of a person’s need for image-symbolic expression and experience of significant moments in his life. Art creates a “second reality” for a person - a world of life experiences expressed by special image-symbolic means. Involvement in this world, self-expression and self-knowledge in it constitute one of the most important needs of the human soul. Philosophy seeks to express wisdom in forms of thought (hence its name, which literally translates as “the love of wisdom”). Philosophy arose as a spiritual overcoming of myth, where wisdom was expressed in forms that did not allow its critical understanding and rational proof. As thinking, philosophy strives for a rational explanation of all existence. But being at the same time an expression of wisdom, philosophy turns to the ultimate semantic foundations of existence, sees things and the whole world in their human (value-semantic) dimension (see: Meshcheryakova N.A., Zharov S.N. Conceptual foundations of the philosophical method and the content of a university course philosophy //Science, education, man. M; 1991. P. 8890). Thus, philosophy acts as

theoretical worldview and expresses human values, human attitude towards the world. Since the world, taken in the semantic dimension, is the world of culture, philosophy acts as comprehension, or, in Hegel’s words, the theoretical soul of culture. The diversity of cultures and the possibility of different semantic positions within each culture lead to a variety of philosophical teachings that argue with each other.

Science has as its goal the rational reconstruction of the world based on the comprehension of its essential laws. Science is inextricably linked with philosophy, which acts as a universal methodology of scientific knowledge and also allows us to comprehend the place and role of science in culture and human life.

Culture develops in a contradictory unity with civilization (see: O. Spengler. Decline of Europe. T. 1. M., 1993; Berdyaev N. A. The will to life and the will to culture // Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990; Berdyaev N. A. Spiritual state of the modern world // New world. 1990. No. 1). The creative potential and humanistic values ​​of culture can be realized only with the help of civilization, but the one-sided development of civilization can lead to oblivion of the highest ideals of culture. The essence, human significance of culture, the laws of its existence and development are studied in cultural studies.

2. Cultural studies as a humanitarian science 2.1. The origins of cultural studies as a science

Creators of cultural studies. Culturology is a humanitarian science about the essence, patterns of existence and development, human meaning and ways of comprehending culture.

Although culture has become a subject of knowledge since the emergence of philosophy, the design of cultural studies as a specific sphere of humanitarian knowledge dates back to the New Age and is associated with the philosophical concepts of history by J. Vico (1668-1744), I. G. Herder (1744-1803) and G. V. F. . Hegel (17701831). The fundamental influence on the formation and development of cultural studies was exerted by W. Dilthey, G. Rickert, E. Cassirer and O. Spengler (1880-1936), the author of one of the most interesting concepts that caused a rise in widespread public interest in cultural studies. Basic ideas and concepts of cultural studies of the 20th century. are also associated with the names of 3. Freud, C. G. Jung, N. A. Berdyaev, E. Fromm, M. Weber, A. Toynbee, K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, J.P. Sartre, X. Ortega and Gasset, P. Lévi-Bruhl, C. Lévi-Strauss, M. Buber, etc. In our country, cultural studies is represented by the works of N. Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885), N. A. Berdyaev (1874-1948), A. F. Losev, as well as D.S. Likhacheva, M. M. Bakhtin, A. Men, S. S. Averintsev, Yu. M. Lotman, E. Yu. Solovyov, L. M. Batkin, L. S. Vasiliev, A. Ya. Gurevich, T. P. Grigorieva, G. Gacheva, G. S. Pomerants, etc. The main ideas and concepts of cultural studies are covered in Chapter 2.

2.2. Unity of understanding and explanation in culturology Culturology as the implementation of a dialogue of cultures.

The method of cultural studies is the unity of explanation and understanding. Each culture is considered as a system of meanings that has its own essence, its own internal logic, which can be comprehended through rational explanation. A rational explanation is a mental reconstruction of a cultural-historical process, based on its universal essence, isolated and recorded in forms of thinking. This involves the use of ideas and methods of philosophy, which serves as the methodological basis of cultural studies.

At the same time, like any human science, cultural studies cannot limit itself to explanation. After all, culture is always addressed to human subjectivity and does not exist outside of a living connection with it. Therefore, in order to comprehend its subject, cultural studies needs understanding, i.e., acquiring a holistic intuitive and semantic involvement of the subject in the comprehended phenomenon. IN

in cultural studies, primary understanding precedes explanation, guiding it and at the same time being deepened and corrected by this explanation. The task of cultural studies is the implementation of a dialogue of cultures, during which we become familiar with other cultures, other worlds of meaning, but do not dissolve in them. Only in this way does the mutual enrichment of cultures occur (Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979.

pp. 334335,346347,371).

Therefore, cultural studies in no case can be reduced only to a system of knowledge. In cultural studies there is not only a system of rational knowledge, but also a system of non-rational understanding, and both of these systems are internally consistent and equally important for the scientific and humanitarian comprehension of culture. The highest achievement of cultural studies is the completeness of understanding, based on the completeness of explanation. This allows you to delve into the life world of other cultures, engage in dialogue with them, and thus enrich and better understand your own culture. Note that sometimes the emphasis on the “understanding” side of cultural studies leads to the appearance of works that in their style resemble works of art and are often such (this primarily applies to the philosophy of existentialism, the ideas of which had a huge influence on cultural studies of the 20th century). Despite the unusual nature of this genre, it is a necessary component of humanitarian knowledge in general (see: Meshcheryakova N.A. Science in the value dimension // Free Thought. 1992. No. 12. P. 3940).

2.3. Specifics of identifying a subject in cultural research. Cultural studies and other humanities.

Culturology studies not only culture as a whole, but also various, often very specific, spheres of cultural life, interacting (even to the point of interpenetration) with anthropology, ethnography, psychiatry, psychology, sociology, economic theory, linguistics, etc., and at the same time maintaining your own face and deciding your own research tasks. In other words, cultural studies is complex humanities. It has its own purely theoretical sections, there are descriptive (empirical) studies, and there are also works that, in terms of the nature of presentation and the vividness of the images, approach the level work of art. In general, cultural studies can study any subject, any phenomenon (even a natural phenomenon), provided that it reveals in it semantic content, the realization of the creative human spirit. The problems of modern cultural studies are primarily related to the capabilities and prospects of a person who discovers through culture (including through other cultures) the drama and tragedy of his own existence, its spiritual infinity and highest meaning.

LITERATURE

Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. M., 1979. Berdyaev N. A. philosophy of freedom. The meaning of creativity. M., 1989. Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990.

Berdyaev N. A. The will to life and the will to culture // Berdyaev N. A. The meaning of history. M., 1990. Berdyaev N. A Spiritual state of the modern world // New World. 1990. No. 1. Wuber M. Me and You. M., 1993. Zharov S.N. Science and religion in the integral mechanisms of the development of knowledge // Natural science in the fight against religious worldview. M, 1988. Mezhuev V. M. Culture as a philosophical problem // Issues. philosophy. 1982. No. 10. Meshcheryakova N. A. Science in the value dimension // Free Thought. 1992. No. 12. Meshcheryakova N. A., Zharov S. N. Conceptual foundations of the philosophical method and the content of a university philosophy course // Science, education, people. M., 1991. Svasyan K. A. Man as a creation and creator of culture // Issues. philosophy. 1987. No. 6. Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T.I.M., 1993.

Chapter 2 Basic schools and concepts of cultural studies Hegel's philosophy as a theory of culture Philosophy of culture by Oswald Spengler

Man, creativity, culture in the philosophy of Nikolai Berdyaev:

The free human spirit as a creator of culture; internal contradiction of cultural creativity;

Free spirit and symbolic forms of culture Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: the concept of Sigmund Freud

Culture and the collective unconscious: the concept of Carl Gustav Jung: The collective unconscious and its archetypes Culture and the problem of the integrity of the human soul

“Challenge and Response” - the driving spring in the development of culture: the concept of Arnold Toynbee

Value as a fundamental principle of culture. (P. A. Sorokin) Culture as a set of sign systems (structuralism by K. Levy

Strauss, M. Foucault, etc.)

Gaming culture concept. (I. Huizinga, X. Ortega and Gasset. E. Fink)

There are many ideas and theories without which it is simply unthinkable to imagine modern cultural studies. However, there are not many outstanding concepts that have left an indelible mark on the entire problematic of cultural studies and determined the development of cultural thought. In this chapter we will look at a number of such concepts. Of course, lack of space does not allow us to cover them in more or less detail, and therefore we will dwell only on the most important and fundamental issues.

1. Hegel's philosophy as a theory of culture

The great idea that man is a creative being, capable of changing the world and creating himself, passed from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment. And a person is called to carry out this self-improvement, relying not on dogma and the authority of the church, but on the powers of his mind. This is how a new, not religious, but secular idea of ​​culture arises as a comprehensive (practical and symbolic) realization human mind. However, the mind appeared as an essentially unchangeable ability of an individual.

This idea was a giant step towards understanding culture, but sooner or later its inherent limitations were bound to become apparent. Firstly, there was a discrepancy between the majesty of cultural tasks and the limitations of individuals bound by conditions, opportunities, etc.; the integrity and internal richness of culture were only postulated, but not explained. Secondly, the idea of ​​human self-creation and endless cultural progress was not entirely combined with the understanding of reason as an eternal and unchanging ability (“rational nature”) of man. It turned out that the majestic stride of progress does not affect the essence of man himself. And the mind that changed and arranged the world turned out to be a collection of ideas and principles that were unchangeable and valid for all times. But even seeing these problems exist was very difficult. To do this, it was necessary to understand culture, mind, and man in a new way. Did it great philosopher, representative of the classical German philosophy G. W. F. Hegel (17701831). For Hegel, culture still acts as the realization of reason, but it is already the realization of the world mind or the world spirit (Hegel uses different terms). This world spirit unfolds its essence, realizing itself in the fate of entire nations, embodied in science, technology, religion, art, forms of social order and government life. This spirit pursues its universal goals, which cannot be

explain as the sum of the plans of individual people or as the individual goal of a strong historical figure. “In general, such universal world goals... cannot be carried out by one individual so that everyone else becomes his obedient instruments, but such goals themselves pave the way for themselves - partly by the will of many, and partly against their will and beyond their consciousness” ( Hegel G.V.F. Aesthetics. In 4 vols. M., 1971. T. 3. P. 603). Of course, all cultural creativity is directly carried out by the individual efforts of people. But in Hegel's theory, everything that people do is the implementation of the goals of the world spirit, which invisibly orchestrates history.

When first acquainted with the Hegelian concept, the question arises: why talk about the world mind when you can always point to individual creators? (Enlightenment philosophers reasoned in a similar way). However, upon closer examination, it turns out that Hegel had the most serious reasons for his theory. The fact is that the development of world culture reveals such integrity and logic of development that cannot be derived from the sum of individual efforts. Rather, on the contrary, the creativity of individual people and even entire nations is subject to this hidden logic, which reveals itself only when the entire diversity of cultural phenomena is understood as a self-developing whole. It is precisely this method of consideration that constitutes Hegel’s merit.

To better understand the significance of Hegel's discovery, let us give the following analogy. Let's imagine improvising musicians separated from each other by time and distance. At first glance, each of them plays, guided only by their own mood. But finally, a brilliant listener was found who heard all these divided voices as the sound of one orchestra and caught a single world theme, a single melody, miraculously composed of the apparent discord. Hegel acted as such a “listener” of the world cultural process. But Hegel not only grasped a single “theme” of world culture, he also managed (to continue our analogy) to make a “musical notation” of this single “world symphony”.

In other words, Hegel not only discovered supra-individual patterns of world culture, but also managed to express them in the logic of concepts. But if so, then perhaps logic is the original basis of the world and man? For Hegel, this was the most natural conclusion, and his entire concept was built on it: the basis of being is reason, thought (but not human, but self-existent, universal) and being are identical. This world mind for Hegel is the true deity.

Hegel not only formulated general principles his theory, but analyzed the entire path of development of world culture (in the works “Philosophy of History”, “Aesthetics”, “History of Philosophy”, “Philosophy of Law”). No thinker had created such a grandiose and harmonious logical picture before him. The development of culture in all its diversity of manifestations - from philosophy, religion and art to state forms for the first time appeared as a natural holistic process. “Philosophy... must... contribute to the understanding that... universal...

reason is also a force capable of realizing itself. ...This mind in its most concrete representation is God. God rules the world: ...the implementation of his plan is world history. Philosophy wants to understand this plan. Before the pure light of this divine idea... the illusion disappears that the world is a crazy, absurd process” (Hegel. Works M.L., 1935. Vol. VIII. Philosophy of History. P. 35).

Hegel does not at all ignore the diversity of cultural forms and qualitative differences in national cultures that have taken place in the history of mankind. Each specific historical culture here is only a step in the self-development of the world spirit, striving for its full realization.

At the same time, Hegel is faithful to the ideals of the Enlightenment, and, above all, to the ideal of freedom.

6
Section one. The essence and purpose of culture.................................................... .....7
Chapter 1. Culture as a subject of cultural studies.................................................... .................7
1. The concept of culture. Culture as the semantic world of man...................................................7
1.1. Concept of symbol. Symbolic forms of culture. ...........................................8
1.2. Man as a creator and creation of culture.................................................. ................9
1.3. Dialogue of cultures................................................... ........................................................ ......9
1.4. Basic forms of spiritual culture................................................................... ...........................10
2. Culturology as a humanitarian science................................................... ........................11
2.1. The origins of cultural studies as a science.................................................... ...............................11
2.2. Unity of understanding and explanation in cultural studies. Culturology as the implementation of a dialogue of cultures...........11
LITERATURE .................................................... ........................................................ ...................12
Chapter 2. Basic schools and concepts of cultural studies.................................................... .............12
1. Hegel’s philosophy as a theory of culture.................................................... ...............................12
2. Philosophy of culture by Oswald Spengler.................................................... ...........................14
3. Man, creativity, culture in Berdyaev’s philosophy............................................. ..........17
3.1. The free human spirit as a creator of culture. ........................................................ ....17
3.2. Free spirit and symbolic forms of culture: the internal contradiction of cultural creativity..................17
4. Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: Freud’s concept.18
5. Culture and the collective unconscious: the concept of Carl Gustav Jung 20
5.1. Collective unconscious and its archetypes....................................20
5.2. Culture and the problem of the integrity of the human soul...................21
6. “Challenge and Response” - the driving spring in the development of culture: the concept of Arnold Toynbee.................................22
7. Value as a fundamental principle of culture (P. A. Sorokin) .23
8. Culture as a set of sign systems (structuralism of C. Lévi-Strauss, M. Foucault, etc.) ...............24
9. The concept of gaming culture (J. Huizinga, X. Ortega y Gasset, E. Fink). ..........25
LITERATURE .................................................... ....................................26
Chapter 3. Culture as a system................................................... ........................26
1. Structural integrity of culture.................................................... .......27
1.1. Material and spiritual aspects of culture. Man is a system-forming factor in the development of culture......27
1.2. Culture as a normative-value and cognitive activity.28
2. Multidimensionality of culture as a system.................................................... .........31
2.1. The purpose of culture................................................... ...........................31
2.2. Interaction of nature and culture. Ecological culture of human activity...................32
2.3. The relationship between culture and society...................................33
LITERATURE .................................................... .....................................36
Chapter 4. Organizational culture and entrepreneurial culture.37
1. The concept of enterprise culture. The value aspect of organizational culture...................................37
2. The main elements and features of the functioning of the sign-symbolic system in the enterprise........40
3. Typology of organizational culture. The state of organizational culture at Russian enterprises......41
LITERATURE .................................................... .....................................43
Chapter 5. Mass and elite culture.................................................... ..........43
1. Concept, historical conditions and stages of the formation of mass culture.................................. 43
2. Economic prerequisites and social functions of “mass” culture............................................44
3. Philosophical foundations of mass culture....................................45
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................48
Chapter 6. The relationship between ideological and humanistic trends in artistic culture......49
1. The concepts of “ideology” and “humanism” in modern social philosophy and cultural studies.............................................. 49
2. The relationship between ideological and humanistic trends in the modern artistic process. Universal in the system of artistic culture.................................................... ....................50
3. Evolution of views on the relationship between ideological and humanistic tendencies ....................................52
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................54
Section two. Development of world culture.........................54
Chapter 1. Myth as a form of culture.................................................... .........54
1. Mystical participation as the main relation of myth......54
2. Myth and magic................................................... ....................................56
3. Man and community: myth as a denial of individuality and freedom 57
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................58
Chapter 2. Culture of the Ancient East.................................................... .......59
1. Social and ideological foundations of the culture of the Ancient East 59
1.1. Eastern despotism as the social basis of ancient cultures 59
1.2. Myth, nature and state in the cultures of the Ancient East 60
1.3. Combining humanity and statehood as a problem of Confucian culture.................................62
1.4. Taoism: freedom as dissolution in nature.................................63
1.5. Buddhism: freedom as an internal withdrawal from life, a complete negation of existence.................64
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................70
Chapter 3. History of ancient culture.................................................... .......70
1. Characteristic features of ancient Greek culture....................................70
2. The main stages of development of Hellenic artistic culture 74
3. Artistic culture of Ancient Rome....................................77
LITERATURE .................................................... ...................................80
Chapter 4. Christianity as the spiritual core of European culture 80
1. The fundamental difference between Christianity and pagan beliefs......81
2. Historical background of Christianity...................................81
3. Fundamentals of the Christian faith. The discovery of personality and freedom......81
4. Why Christianity became a world religion...................................83
5. Spiritual and moral problems of the Sermon on the Mount......83
5.1. The contradiction between the Spirit and the world.................................................... .......83
5.2. Paradoxes of Christian morality.................................................... .....84
6. The importance of Christianity for the development of European culture................................85
Literature ........................................................ ...................................85
Chapter 5. Culture of Western Europe in the Middle Ages...................................85
1. Periodization of medieval culture.................................................... .......86
2. Christian consciousness - the basis of medieval mentality 87
3. Scientific culture in the Middle Ages.................................................... .........88
4. Artistic culture of medieval Europe...................................89
4.1. Romanesque style................................................... ...................................89
4.3. Medieval music and theater................................................................. ......91
5. “Spiritual forests” of the culture of the New Age....................................93
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................93
Chapter 6. Culture of the Western European Renaissance.................................93
1. Humanism - the value basis of the culture of the Renaissance.................................93
2. Attitude to ancient and medieval culture............................................95
3. Features of the artistic culture of the Renaissance......96
3.1. Italian Renaissance................................................... ................97
3.2. Northern Renaissance................................................... ................98
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................98
Chapter 7. The Reformation and its cultural and historical significance.................................99
1. Cultural and historical conditions and prerequisites of the Reformation 99
2. Martin Luther's spiritual revolution.................................................... .......100
3. Spiritual foundations of the new morality: Work as “worldly asceticism” .................. 101
4. Freedom and reason in Protestant culture....................................101
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................103
Chapter 8. Culture of the Enlightenment.................................................... .......103
1. The main dominants of the culture of the European Enlightenment...............103
2. Style and genre features of art of the 18th century 104
3. The flourishing of theatrical and musical culture....................................105
4. Synthesis of ethics, aesthetics and literature in the works of the great French educators.........106
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................108
Chapter 9. .................................................... ....................................112
Chapter 10. Artistic culture of the 20th century: modernism and postmodernism 112
1. Worldview foundations of modernist art.................................112
2. The variety of types and forms of artistic culture of modernism 113
3. Attempts to create synthetic forms of art....................................119
4. Postmodernism: deepening aesthetic experiments of the 20th century 120
LITERATURE .................................................... ...............................121
Section three. The main stages of the development of Russian culture......121
Chapter 1. Formation of Russian culture...............................................121
1. Pagan culture of the ancient Slavs...............................................122
2. The adoption of Christianity is a turning point in the history of Russian culture.....123
3. Culture of Kievan Rus.................................................. ....................125
LITERATURE .................................................... ....................127
Chapter 2. The flourishing of Russian culture 128
1. Culture of the Muscovite kingdom (XIV-XVII centuries) .............................. 128
2. Culture of Imperial Russia (beginning of the 17th - end of the 19th centuries) 132
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................135
Chapter 3. “Silver Age” of Russian culture.................................135
1. Peculiarities of Russian culture at the “turn of the century” ...............135
2. Artistic culture of the “Silver Age” .................. 136
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................140
Chapter 4. The Soviet period of development of Russian culture..................................141
1. Ideological attitudes of communists in relation to artistic culture.....141
2. The first post-October decade in the development of Russian culture 142
4. Sociocultural situation of the 60-70s of the 20th century in Russia..............144
5. Soviet culture of the 80s of the XX century 145
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................145
Chapter 5. Protection of national cultural heritage.................................146
1. On continuity in the development of culture. Organizational basis for the protection of national cultural heritage..146
2. The Russian estate is the most important part of the cultural heritage........................147
3. Revival of religious and cult culture....................................148
4. Program of the Russian Cultural Foundation “Small Towns of Russia” 149
5. The fate of national artistic crafts and crafts of Russia 150
LITERATURE .................................................... ................................151
Conclusion ................................................. ................................151

Gaudeamus igitur
Juvenes dum sunuis!
Post jucundam juventutem,
Post molestam senectutem
Nos habebit humus
Ubi sunt qui ante nos in mundo fuere?
Vadite ad superos Transeans ad inferos
Quos si vis videre!
Vita nostra brevis est, Brevi finietur;
Venit mors velositer, Rapit nos atrociter Neminu parcetur!
Vivat academy!
Vivant professors! Vivat memorum quodlibet!
Vivat memobra quodlibet!
Semper sin in flore!

Compiler and executive editor prof. A. A. Radugin
God's gift is beauty;
and if you think about it without flattery,
Then you have to admit:
Not everyone has this gift,
Beauty needs care
without him beauty dies,
Even if her face is similar to Venus herself.
Ovid
alma mater

Reviewers: Titov S. N.,
Doctor of Philosophy,
Professor of the Department of Philosophy
Voronezh State University; Department of History and Theory of Culture, Voronezh State Pedagogical University
Culturology: Textbook / Compiled and responsible. editor A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2001. - 304 p.
K 90
ISBN 5-88860-046-6
The manual is written in accordance with the “State requirements (Federal component) for the mandatory minimum content and level of training of higher school graduates in the cycle “General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines”. It examines the essence and purpose of culture: the main schools, concepts and trends in cultural studies, the history of world and domestic culture, the preservation of world and national cultural heritage.
Intended as a teaching aid for university students, technical schools, college students, gymnasiums, and high schools.
Without announcement ISBN 5-88860-046-6
BBK 71.0.ya73
A.A. Radugin, 2001

X restomatia in cultural studies

Tutorial

God's gift- beauty;

and if you think about it without flattery,

Then you have to admit: this gift

not everyone has it

Beauty needs care

without him beauty dies,

Even if her face is similar to Venus herself.

Ovid

Moscow 1998

Publishing house

UDC008(09)(075.8)

BBK 63.3(0-7)ya73

Reader on cultural studies: Proc. manual / Compiled by:

X91 Laletin D. A., Parkhomenko I. T., Radugin A. A.

Rep. editor Radugin A. A. - M.: Center, 1998. - 592 p.

ISBN 5-88860-044-Х

The book is an anthology of thematically structured cultural texts - extracts from the works of thinkers of different eras, as well as monuments of world literature. In accordance with the requirements (Federal component) for the mandatory minimum content and level of training for higher school graduates in the cycle “General Humanitarian and Socio-Economic Disciplines,” the texts highlight the essence and purpose of culture, the main schools in cultural studies, the history of world and domestic culture, issues of preservation world and national cultural heritage.

Intended as a teaching aid for university students, technical schools, college students, gymnasiums, and high schools.

No announcement

ISBN 5-88860-044-Х

BBK63.3(0-7)ya73

© Radugin A. A., 1998

Preface

Section one

^ ESSENCE AND PURPOSE OF CULTURE

E. Durkheim 12

^ Main schools and concepts of cultural studies

I.G. Herder 27

G.V.F. Hegel 43

A. Schopenhauer 49

F. Nietzsche 51

O. Spengler 58

N.A. Berdyaev 81

Culture and the unconscious beginning of man: Freud's concept

^ S. Freud 104

Culture and the collective unconscious: the concept of K.G. Jung

K.G. Jung 126

J. Huizinga 131

K. Lévi-Strauss 133

J. Derrida 137

Culture as a system

N.P. Ogarev 144

R. Bella 145

MM. Bakhtin 155

S. Norman 156

K.D. Kavelin 161

Relationships

ideological and

humanistic

trends in artistic culture

N.G. Chernyshevsky 203

J.P. Sartre 205

K. Marx 206

F. Engels 206

V.S. Soloviev 207

S.N. Bulgakov 210

MM. Bakhtin 213

M. Heidegger 214

Section two

^ DEVELOPMENT OF WORLD CULTURE

Myth as a form of culture

A.F. Losev 218

S.A. Tokarev 219

A.A. Potebnya 223

M. Mead 228

D.D. Fraser 232

E. Kassirer 236

A. Bely 244

Culture of the Ancient East

Bhagavad Gita 249

Mahabharata 250

Ramayana 255

Tipitaka 258

Nirvana 259

Lao Tzu 261

Confucius 263

History of ancient culture

Plato 266

Aristotle 276

Horace 283

Christianity as a spiritual core

European culture

Bible 288

M. Weber 292

Western European culture

in the Middle Ages

Augustine 305

Value as a fundamental principle of culture

P.A. Sorokin 308

R. Guenon 311

Le Goff J. 319

Culture of the Western European Renaissance

^ Humanism  value basis of Renaissance culture

L. Valla 335

D. Pico Dela Mirandola 345

D. Bruno 353

M. Montaigne 355

Reformation

and its cultural and historical significance

^ M. Weber 373

Culture of the Enlightenment

N. Boileau 386

The cultural crisis of the twentieth century and ways to overcome it

^ N.A. Berdyaev 404

Artistic culture of the twentieth century:

modernism and postmodernism

Technical Manifesto of Futurist Literature 416

^ The first manifesto of futurism by F.T. Marinetti 421

Manifesto of Surrealism 1924. Andre Breton 426

Dada Manifesto 446

Houseman et al 448

Manifesto of surrealism. Ivan Goll 449

J. Habermas 451

J.-F. Lyotard 467

Section three

^ MAIN STAGES OF CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Russia

Formation and development of Russian culture

CM. Soloviev 472

P.N. Milyukov 480

L. Shestov 487

G.P. Fedotov 488

V.I. Ivanov 495

D.S. Likhachev 498

V.V. Veidle 505

D.S. Likhachev 517

N.A. Berdyaev 521

I.A. Ilyin 528

M. Gorky 529

V.I. Lenin 546

"Silver Age" of Russian culture

V.Ya. Bryusov 552

V.I. Ivanov 558

Soviet period of development of Russian culture

A.A. Zhdanov 556

^ A.D. Sakharov 570

Preface

The modern education system is focused on updating all the creative abilities of students: the harmonious development of their intellectual, professional, moral and aesthetic qualities. The study of the cycle of humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines is expected to play a significant role in solving this problem. A key role in the humanitarian training of specialists belongs to cultural studies. In accordance with the general education standard  "State requirements (Federal component) for the mandatory minimum content and level of preparation of higher school graduates in the cycle "General humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines" in the course of studying cultural studies, a student must learn to understand and be able to explain cultural phenomena and their role in human life, distinguish forms and types of cultures, main cultural and historical centers and regions, know the history of world and domestic culture, take care of the preservation and enhancement of national and world cultural heritage.

Textbooks and teaching aids on cultural studies can provide some assistance in mastering these problems. However, a deep comprehension of cultural phenomena is possible only as a result of familiarization with primary sources - the works of thinkers of different eras, as well as literary monuments of world culture. To acquaint the reader with the main works in the field of cultural studies, to make them feel the originality of cultural thought, its features and diverse forms is one of the main goals of the proposed textbook.

The selection of material for the book was subordinated to the solution of these problems. The compilers sought to ensure that the material presented in this publication represents the cultural process holistically and comprehensively. The selection of fragments was aimed at ensuring that they adequately expressed the views of the relevant thinkers and at the same time were accessible to understanding by a wide readership. The structure of the textbook corresponds to the program of the course "Cultural Studies".

Section one

ESSENCE

^ AND PURPOSE

CULTURES

Culture as a subject of cultural studies

DURKHEIM EMIL

On the division of social labor.-M.: Nauka, 1991-P. 5255

At first glance, nothing seems easier than to determine the role of the division of labor. Isn’t its effect known to everyone? Since it increases both the productive power and the skill of the worker, it constitutes a necessary condition for the material and intellectual development of society, the source of civilization. On the other hand, since absolute value is readily attributed to civilization, they do not even think about looking for another function for the division of labor.

That the division of labor really produces this result is impossible to even try to dispute. But if it had no other result and did not serve for something else, then there would be no reason to attribute to it a moral character.

Indeed, the services rendered to them in this way are very far from moral life, or at least have a very indirect and distant relationship to it. Although it is now customary to respond to Rousseau’s harsh criticism with praises to the contrary, it has not been proven at all that civilization is a moral thing. To solve this question one cannot resort to the analysis of concepts, which are inevitably subjective, but one must find a fact suitable for measuring the level of average morality, and then observe how it changes as civilization progresses. Unfortunately, we do not have such a unit of measurement; but we have it in relation to collective immorality. Indeed, the average number of suicides and crimes of all kinds can serve to indicate the height of immorality in a given society. But if we turn to experience, it speaks little in favor of civilization, for the number of these painful phenomena seems to increase as science, art and industry progress (See: Alexander von Oettingen. Moralstatistik. Erlangen, 1882. para. 37 etc.; Tarde. Criminalite comparee (P., F. Alcan) / chapter II (On suicides, see below, book II, chapter 1, paragraph II). hence, that civilization is immoral, but it is possible, by

At the very least, be sure that if it has a positive, beneficial influence on moral life, then this influence is rather weak.

However, if we analyze that ill-defined complex that is called civilization, we will find that the elements of which it consists are devoid of any moral character.

This is especially true for the economic activities that constantly accompany civilization. Not only does it not serve the progress of morality, but crimes and suicides are especially numerous in large industrial centers. In any case, it is obvious that it does not represent external signs by which moral facts are recognized. We replaced stagecoaches railways, sailing ships - huge steamships, small workshops - manufactories; this whole flourishing of activity is generally regarded as beneficial, but it has nothing morally obligatory. The artisan, the small industrialist, who resists this general trend and stubbornly clings to his modest enterprises, performs his duty just as well as the large manufacturer who covers the country with a network of factories and unites a whole army of workers under his command. The moral consciousness of a nation does not err; it prefers a little justice to all the industrial improvements in the world. Of course, industrial activity has its basis: it satisfies certain needs, but these needs are not of a moral order.

This can be said with even greater justification about art, which is absolutely opposed to everything that looks like duty, since it is the kingdom of freedom. It is luxury and decoration, which may be wonderful to have, but it is not necessary to acquire them; what is superfluous is not necessary. On the contrary, morality is an obligatory minimum and a severe necessity, it is our daily bread, without which societies cannot live. Art responds to our need to expand our activity without a goal, for the pleasure of spreading it, while morality forces us to follow a certain road to a certain goal; whoever says “duty” also says “coercion.” Therefore, art, although it can be animated by moral ideas or intertwined with the evolution of moral phenomena proper, is not moral in itself. Observation may even establish that in individuals, as in societies, the immoderate development of aesthetic inclinations represents a serious symptom from the point of view of morality.

Of all the elements of civilization, only science under certain conditions has a moral character. Indeed, societies are increasingly seeking to recognize the individual’s responsibility for development.

Your mind through the assimilation of established scientific truths. There is now a certain amount of knowledge that we should all have. A man is not obliged to throw himself into a great industrial battle or to become an artist; but everyone is now obliged not to be ignorant. This duty makes itself felt so strongly that in some societies it is sanctioned not only public opinion, but also by law. However, one can see where this privilege characteristic of science comes from. The fact is that science is nothing more than consciousness brought to highest degree its clarity. But in order for societies to live under the current conditions of existence, it is necessary that the field of consciousness, both individual and social, expand and clarify. Indeed, the environment in which they live is becoming more and more complex and, therefore, more mobile, therefore, in order to exist for a long time, they need to change often. On the other hand, the darker the consciousness, the more resistant it is to change, because it does not see quickly enough either that changes need to be made, or in which direction to make them. On the contrary, an enlightened consciousness knows how to find a way to adapt to them in advance. That is why it is necessary that reason, guided by science, take a more active part in the course of collective life.

But the science, the mastery of which is now required of everyone, almost does not deserve this name. This is not science - this is best case scenario the most general and simple part of it. It really comes down to a small number of mandatory pieces of information that are required from everyone simply because they are intended for everyone. Real science infinitely surpasses this ordinary level: it includes not only what it is a shame not to know, but everything that is possible to know. It presupposes in those who engage in it not only those average abilities that all people possess, but also special inclinations. Therefore, being available only to a select few, it is not obligatory. This is a useful and wonderful thing, but not necessary to such an extent that society imperatively demands it. It is advantageous to secure it; but there is nothing immoral in not mastering it. It is a field of action open to the initiative of all, but into which no one is forced to step. It is no more necessary to be a scientist than to be an artist. So science, like art and industry, is outside morality (“The essential feature of goodness compared to truth is to be obligatory. Truth in itself does not have this character” (Janet. Morale, p. 139).

The reason for much disagreement about the moral character of civilization is that very often moralists do not have an objective criterion for distinguishing moral facts from those that are not. Usually moral

They name everything that has nobility and value, everything that is the subject of some lofty aspirations - and only thanks to this excessive expansion of the meaning of the word is it possible to introduce civilization into the realm of morality. But the field of ethics is not so uncertain; it covers all the rules to which behavior is subject and to which sanctions are associated, but nothing more. Consequently, civilization, since there is nothing in it that would contain this criterion of morality, is morally indifferent. Therefore, if the division of labor did not create anything other than the very possibility of civilization, it would participate in the formation of the same morality of neutrality...

P.225 - 227:

Of course, there are many pleasures that are now available to us and which simpler creatures do not know. But we are subject to many sufferings from which they are spared, and we cannot be sure that the balance is in our favor. Thought is undoubtedly a source of joys which can be very powerful; but at the same time, how many joys she disrupts! For one solved problem, how many questions have been raised and left unanswered! For one resolved doubt, there are so many mysteries that confuse us! In the same way, if a savage does not know the pleasures brought by an active life, then he is not subject to boredom, this torment cultured people. He allows his life to flow calmly, without feeling the constant need to hastily fill its too short moments with numerous and urgent matters. Let us not forget, moreover, that for most people work is still a punishment and a burden.

It will be objected that among civilized peoples life is more varied and that diversity is necessary for pleasure. But civilization, along with greater mobility, also introduces greater monotony, for it has imposed monotonous, continuous work on man. The savage moves from one occupation to another in accordance with his motivating needs and circumstances; A civilized person always devotes himself entirely to one and the same occupation, which presents the less variety the more limited it is. Organization necessarily presupposes absolute regularity in habits, for a change in the mode of functioning of an organ cannot take place without affecting the whole organism. On this side, our life leaves less room for the unexpected and at the same time, due to its greater instability, it robs pleasure of some of the security that it needs.

True, our nervous system, having become more subtle, is accessible to weak excitations that did not affect our ancestors, in whom it was very coarse. But at the same time, many excitements

What were once pleasant have become too strong and therefore painful for us. If we are sensitive to more pleasures, then the same is true for suffering. On the other hand, if it is true that, as a rule, suffering produces a greater shock in the body than pleasure (See: Hartmann. Philosophic de 1 "inconscient, P), that unpleasant excitement gives us more pain than pleasant excitement - pleasure, then this greater sensitivity could rather hinder happiness than favor it. Indeed, very refined nervous systems live in suffering and in the end even become attached to it. Is it not remarkable that the main cult of the most civilized religions is the cult of human suffering? the continuation of life now, as before, requires that, on average, pleasures prevail over suffering. But it cannot be argued that this predominance has become more significant.

Finally, and this is especially important, it has not been proven that this surplus has ever served as a measure of happiness. Of course, in these obscure and still poorly understood questions, nothing can be said for sure; it seems, however, that happiness and the sum of pleasures are not the same thing. This is a general and constant state that accompanies the regular activity of all our organic and mental functions. Continuous activities such as breathing or circulating blood do not provide positive pleasure; however, our good mood and mood mainly depend on them. Every pleasure is a kind of crisis: it is born, lasts for a moment and dies; life, on the contrary, is continuous. What constitutes its main charm must be continuous, just like it. Pleasure is local: it is an affect limited to some point in the body or consciousness; life is neither here nor there: it is everywhere. Our attachment to it must therefore depend on an equally general cause. In a word, happiness does not express the instantaneous state of some particular function, but the health of physical and moral life as a whole. Since pleasure accompanies the normal implementation of intermittent functions, the more place these functions occupy in life. But it is not happiness; even its level can only be changed within limited limits, for it depends on fleeting reasons, while happiness is something permanent. In order for local sensations to deeply touch this foundation of our sensory sphere, they must be repeated with exceptional frequency and constancy. Most often, on the contrary, pleasure depends on happiness: depending on whether we are happy or not, everything smiles at us or makes us sad. It was not for nothing that it was said that we carry our happiness within ourselves.

But if this is so, then there is no need to ask whether happiness increases with civilization. Happiness is an indicator of health. But the health of any species is not better because it is of a higher type. A healthy mammal does not feel any better than an equally healthy single cell. It should be the same with happiness. It does not become larger where the activity is richer; it is the same wherever she is healthy. The simplest and the most complex beings enjoy the same happiness if they realize their nature in the same way. A normal savage can be just as happy as a normal civilized person...