Geography of Peru. The meaning of the word "peru" in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Republic of Peru located in the western part of South America. The area of ​​the state is 1,285,220 square kilometers. The country is washed By the Pacific Ocean. The coastline is almost two and a half thousand kilometers long.

From Peru border five countries: Ecuador from the north-west (1420 km of the land border), Colombia from the north (1800 km), Chile (171 km) and Bolivia (1075 km) from the southeast, Brazil from the east (2995 km). The approximate length of all borders in total is 5.5 thousand km.

Western part the country is located along the Pacific coast of a narrow strip of coastal desert plains called Costa. To the east the area of ​​Peru passes into the mountainous Andes - Sierra. The Western and Eastern Cordillera are steep and high mountains. Highest point state territory - Mount Huascaran (about 6700 m). Besides, in the east there is the Amazonian lowland Selva, which passes to the south to the foothill plain of Montagna. The vast lowland of the Amazon Basin is a jungle. Westernmost point countries - Cape Parinyas.

Largest rivers Peru is the Amazon with its tributaries Ucayali, Marañon and Putumayo. The source of the Amazon is in the glacial lake Lauricoca in the Sierra Mountains. The largest lakes- Titicaca and Hanin. Lake Titicaca is located in the southeastern region of the country, close to the border with Bolivia. It is considered the largest high-altitude navigable lake in the world. The lake is located at an altitude of about 3800 meters, and its area is 8446 square kilometers. Titicaca is known for its specific color, and its name from the Indian language is translated as "tin field".

Time zone of Peru: GMT-5 (-8 hours from Moscow).

Climate

Climate varies depending on the region of the country. The west of Peru belongs to the tropical desert type of climate, the east to subequatorial, in the mountains the temperature varies depending on the altitude.

Coastal climate Peru is characterized by aridity. It receives about 10-50 mm of precipitation per year. From December to April, the hottest weather is observed with an average daytime temperature of up to +26 ° С in the southern part and up to +36 ° С in the north. At night, the temperature drops to + 20 ... + 24 ° С. In winter on the coast (June-August on this continent) the average daytime temperature is +19 ° С, +28 ° С in the north and about + 13 ... + 17 ° С at night.

In the mountainous area temperatures are lower. In summer, at an altitude of 4 thousand meters above sea level, the average temperature is + 19 ... + 21 ° С in the daytime and + 4 ... + 6 ° С at night, even frosts can be observed. The Andes mountains receive from 700 to 2000 mm of precipitation per year. The period from April to October is considered the dry season here.

In a low-lying area usually humid and hot. In summer, average temperatures fluctuate around +34 ° C during the day and +24 ° C at night. In winter, the air can warm up to +30 ° С, cooling down to +20 ° С after sunset. In the tropics, about 3800 mm of precipitation falls per year, most of all rain is observed from autumn to spring.

The capital the republic is the city of Lima. Other major tourist centers: Arequipa, Iquitos, Cuzco, Machu Picchu, Pebas, Puerto Maldonado, Selva, Titicaca, Trujillo.

Peru (the Republic of Peru, if we talk about the official name of this country) is a state of the South American continent. Peru borders following states: Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador.

The Peru River gave its name to this state. "Peru" in translation from the language of the local Indians means nothing more than "river".

Lima is the capital of the Republic of Peru. The area of ​​this country is 1,285,216 square kilometers. The Pacific Ocean washes Peru on the west side.

Peru has a republican form of government, with a president at the head of state. The highest legislative body in Peru is the unicameral Congress, and the highest executive body is the government (which is also headed by the president). Twenty-four regions and one hundred and fifty-nine provinces form the administrative divisions of the Republic of Peru.

Spanish is the official language. English is spoken only in big shops, great hotels and some developed cities.

Ninety percent of the population is Catholic. The ethnic composition of Peru is as follows: half of the population is Peruvians and about forty-nine percent are Indians. Peruvians include Creoles, Mestizos and Hispanics.

The population was estimated at nearly thirty million as of July 2010, with an annual growth rate of 1.2 percent. Seventy-one percent of the population lives in cities.

New salt is the national currency of Peru. New salt is equal to one hundred centimos.

The average air temperature on the Peruvian coast varies from fourteen to twenty-seven degrees Celsius with a plus sign. In the highlands of the country, the average temperature ranges from nine to eighteen degrees Celsius. It's hot in the jungle: the air, on average, warms up to twenty-five to twenty-eight degrees Celsius.

The largest rivers in Peru are the Marañon and, of course, the Amazon; the largest lake is Titicaca. Peruvians are open-minded and unusually cheerful. All kinds of festivals are often held in Peru.

The national cuisine is also distinguished by its originality. Indeed, it is based on the best culinary traditions of almost all continents.

The tourist infrastructure of Peru is very well developed, thanks to which traveling around the country will be comfortable and, of course, fun. Gratuities, as a rule, are already included in the bill of hotels and restaurants, bars, hairdressers.

Peru is a country with a long history. The history of this country is ranked among the oldest on earth. According to certain data, the first settlements appeared on its territory already 10 thousand years ago. One of the oldest civilizations in the world - the civilizations of the Chico tribe - laid the foundation for the Indian history of Peru. The Kingdom of the Incas was the end of the Indian history of this state. The following cultures also left their mark in his chronicle: the Vari, Nazca, Chavin, Paracas, Chimu, Mochica cultures. Currently, there are about one hundred and eighty museums in Peru. Here is located and a large number of archaeological parks. These include the Machu Picchu Park (indeed, another wonder of the world, famous all over the world), the mysterious lines of the Nazca desert, as well as almost ruined cities lost in the Andean valleys.

You need a visa to enter Peru. If the duration of your intended stay in Peru ( it comes on a tourist stay) does not exceed a period of ninety days, then citizens Russian Federation can do without a visa. It is also not necessary to issue a transit visa in advance if the duration of the trip is two days or less. When crossing the Peruvian border, you must have a passport and return tickets. The passport must be valid for at least six months at the time of entry into the country.

Several vaccinations are recommended before visiting Peru. First, the malaria vaccine. Secondly, when visiting territories with a height of less than two thousand three hundred meters, as well as the Selva region, it is necessary to get vaccinated against yellow fever, in addition, when visiting this area there is some risk of contracting hepatitis B and D. In some areas there are natural foci of the spread of such diseases like rabies and typhoid. As a preventive measure, it is recommended not to buy food in cheap stores or directly on the streets of cities, and also drink only pasteurized milk and bottled water. Despite all this, Peru is one of the safest countries in the South American continent in terms of tourist visits.

Lima is the largest city in Peru. This is so, and the Peruvian capital is at the same time the cultural, political and economic center of the Republic. Lima's area is over eight hundred square kilometers. Together with the suburbs, the area is four thousand three hundred and ten square kilometers. The population of the Peruvian capital is approximately 7.8 million people (together with the population of the suburbs). And this is about thirty percent of the total population of the country. Lima is home to Quechua Indians, Hispanic Peruvians, Japanese, Europeans, mestizos, and Chinese. The official language is not only Spanish, but also the Quechua language.

Peru is an agricultural country. Nevertheless, the mining industry is developed in Peru. The manufacturing industry is also actively developing. Peru is rich in the following natural resources: copper, timber, hydropower, phosphates, coal, iron ore, oil and gas, gold, silver, fish. In per capita terms, the gross domestic product as of 2009 amounted to 8.6 thousand dollars. According to this indicator, Peru is in one hundred and fifteenth place among the countries of the world. Unemployment for the same year was nine percent. In 2006, approximately forty-five percent of Peru's population (nearly half) was below the poverty line. The service sector employs seventy-five percent of the working population, and its share in the gross domestic product is sixty-seven percent. Among the crops cultivated by agriculture: corn, potatoes, rice, sugarcane, cotton, cocoa, coffee, asparagus, grapes, peaches, lemons, apples, bananas, guavas, pineapples, oranges, coca, coconuts, medicinal plants, barley, mango , tomatoes, wheat beans. Fishing, meat and dairy farming, poultry farming, and guinea pig breeding are well developed in Peru.

Peru is a country of unique natural resources. This is indeed the case. For example, Peru is home to ten percent of the world's species of mammals and reptiles, twenty percent of all bird species, and eighty-four out of one hundred and four biological zones existing on Earth are located on the territory of this state.

The Republic of Peru is a country of natural contrasts. The length of the sandy coast of the Pacific Ocean (in the Peruvian language it is called Costa) in the west of Peru is almost two and a half thousand kilometers. Stunning, but one of the driest areas on the planet. The reason for this amazing phenomenon is the cold Humboldt Current (or Peruvian Current) washing the coast. Here, on the edge of the Pacific Ocean, there may not even be a little rain for several years. Thorny bushes and cacti - plants typical of deserts - are buried in the local sands. The Peruvian current is the reason not only for aridity, but also for the abundance of fish in the waters. The fact is that the bottom waters, which are distinguished by the richness of mineral substances, rise upward - just here a huge number of tiny living creatures feel great. The latter are nothing more than fish food. Dozens of small rivers cut through the deserted coast. Oases are located in the valleys of these short rivers. Fruit trees, cotton and sugarcane also grow here. The landscape of the deserted Costa is diversified by the beauty of the Peruvian Andes. The mountain system is actually enormous. The world of snow avalanches, glaciers and rocks appears before your eyes. This is the sierra, that is, the mountains. From north to south, the entire central part of Peru is made up of the Sierra. Huascaran is the highest peak. Its height is 6768 meters. The Amazon - the greatest river on the planet - originates here. Thus, the western foothills of the Andes are a tropical desert. As for the eastern foothills of the Andes, they are complete opposite western. The eastern foothills are humid equatorial jungles. And if in the west there is no precipitation for several years, then in the east up to 2000 mm of precipitation falls annually. This is selva. A wide variety of exotic animals live here.

The Republic of Peru is the most "Indian" of all American countries. Indians are a significant part of the population of Peru. They communicate with each other in Quechua. Moreover, on the formation ancient culture incas big influence it was the Quechua tribe that rendered it. In the basin of Lake Titicaca, about eight thousand years ago, the Quechua Indians formed an agricultural center, which is now recognized as one of the oldest on the planet. The Indians even grew potatoes on arable land, and as they developed, they developed cultivars of cotton, peanuts, beans and corn. The Quechua Indians managed to tame the llama. Thus, a center for animal husbandry emerged in America. In the period between the fifth and eighth centuries, the Quechua Indians mastered the construction of stone, and after a few more centuries they created irrigation canals, the length of which not only reached one hundred kilometers, but sometimes even exceeded this value. There was also a water supply. The Indians learned to smelt metals from ore, to mold vessels from clay. They used an alloy of gold with copper and silver, as well as bronze, to make various subjects... The potter's wheel was not used. In addition to clay vessels, the Indians made figurines of people and animals. An interesting fact is that some of the roads built by the Incas five centuries ago can be seen today. The width of the two main roads is four to five meters. Kipa belongs to the inventions of the Quechua Indians. In their language, this word means "knot". Bale in in this case is a stunning nodular letter. Quechua took a thick cord or stick. They tied shoelaces to him (or her). The color of the latter could be different. At different distances from each other, knots were tied on these multi-colored laces. Often, the bundle contained an object. It could be a bean, grain, or a small pebble. It is interesting that in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries professional kipu reciters worked, they understood the "books" of Quechua. Currently, the Quechua Indians have settled mainly in the selva and Sierra. Their activities include crafts and agriculture. The Indians make amazing pottery, because they use the centuries-old skills of this craftsmanship. Many Quechua Indians are employed in factories and mines.

Peru is good to visit in summer. This is not true. With the onset of May, Peru has a dull time of the year. The most unfavorable month in this regard is August. Late autumn, winter and early spring (in Peru) are periods of inhospitable weather. At this time, it is cloudy, the sun does not come out because of the clouds at all. Visitors always have the feeling that it might start to rain, but locals know that it won't rain for several months. This is due to the saturation of the air with moisture. In August, air temperatures often drop below thirteen degrees Celsius. Dampness due to 100% humidity permeates everything and everyone, creates an atmosphere of cold. It is surprising that in the midst of such nondescript weather, sometimes there are days when the sky is notable for its blueness. These days the sun is incredibly strong. Peruvians, of course, refuse winter clothes, which they were forced to wear because of the cold, and take out sunglasses from secluded places. Thus, there can be only one day between "winter" and "summer" in Peru. Most often, nature gives local residents such gifts at the end of June. Moreover, in Peru there is not only a contrast of natural conditions in time, but also their contrast in the geographical dimension. The fact is that the canopy of heavy clouds drags the sky almost only over the Peruvian coast. Indeed, this canopy is not wide at all. If you drive only twenty to thirty kilometers from the coast towards the mountains, then the cloudy day will suddenly change so hot that a person will not think about how to dress warmly, but about where to find a shade to hide from the scorching sun rays.

Cusco is a city where two cultures intersect. So it was five hundred years ago, and it remains so to this day. The city has a lot to tell about its colonial past. On the streets of Cusco, you can see many churches from the colonial period. The area around San Vlas has remained unchanged for several centuries. Many artisans and artists lived here. The fact that Cusco is an ancient city is reminiscent of its architecture. Cobbled streets and red tiled roofs add color to Cusco. The Urubamba Valley stretches twenty-eight kilometers from the city. She is nestled at the foot of Chicon Peak, snowy and majestic. The Urubamba Valley was protected by mountains on all sides. The climate is mild. It renders beneficial effect not only on the cultivation of vegetables and fruits (agriculture for the inhabitants of the valley was a common thing long before the Spanish expansion), but also has a very beneficial effect on human health and well-being. And thirty kilometers from Cusco, you can get to know another city of Peru. This is the ancient city of Pisak (on the slope of the mountain you can see the ruins of a fortress built long before our century). It is small in size, located in the valley of the Villaconta River. The nature of the city is amazing. However, not only it attracts tourists to visit Pisak. There is a Sunday market here. Knitted bags, ponchos, runners, homespun carpets and other products of labor of Indians from the mountain villages are welcome purchases for many tourists.

Manu is a National Park in Peru. In terms of area, this park occupies one and a half million hectares. The National Park contains thirteen species of monkeys. Among them are seven types of macaques. Alligators, jaguars, eagles and other animals also live in the park at large (in natural conditions for animals). Through the territory National park the Inca Trail passes, which adds to Manu's attractiveness in the eyes of tourists.

Puno is a city of unchanging appearance. The year of its foundation is considered to be 1668. Since the seventeenth century, indeed, not much has changed. The semi-handicraft industry, one-story houses, and a small population are all testimonies to urban history. The Spaniards, Aymara and Quechua are three peoples, at the intersection of whose cultures the city of Puno emerged. Puno is currently the center of the department. Puno is interesting in historical and archaeological terms; The necropolis of Silustani is located thirty-four kilometers from the city. The area of ​​the necropolis is four thousand meters. The local landscape in the best way possible emphasizes the majesty of the twelve-meter buildings, which are round in shape and built of stone.

Nazca is a mysterious desert. It is located in the south of the Republic of Peru. The Nasco Desert has been hiding its secret for more than one century. Could people who in previous times passed through the desert think that they had geometric shapes and amazing drawings under their feet? These people could not think in this way because from the earth's surface (from the height of human eyes) figures and drawings are invisible. They are gigantic in size. You can see them only when you rise above the surface of the earth. Without doing this, it is impossible to understand that the lines under your feet mean something, go somewhere and generally represent something. Nazca keeps a real monument of antiquity. The giant drawings, which were only seen in the twentieth century, depict a spider, monkey, whale, birds, even a human figure. The discoverer of the drawings was the archaeologist M. Ksespe. In 1927, a Peruvian explorer unexpectedly saw them from a steep mountainside. This event caused the emergence of all kinds of theories trying to explain the phenomenon of drawings; they even talked about foreign interference. One such theory was that drawings in ancient times were something vaguely reminiscent of modern runways. In 1939, P. Kosok, an American historian, began to study the mysteries of the Peruvian Andes. Thanks to his work, drawings of the Nazca desert became widely known - some of them were captured in photographs from an airplane. P. Kosok put forward a hypothesis according to which the mysterious lines represent the astronomical calendar. The lines of ancient drawings, in his opinion, show the way to some stars. Another explanation for the drawings that existed in the twentieth century is their magical purpose. Some researchers were convinced that during religious rites, ancient people climbed balloons up. The symbols that remained on the ground were clearly visible to them from a bird's eye view. Some researchers came to the conclusion that the drawings are a path, that is, a kind of ritual route, having passed which, people got the opportunity to penetrate into the essence of the image depicted in this or that drawing.

The territory of Peru is professionally interesting for archaeologists. This is true. In confirmation this statement the following fact can be cited. In 2008, a unique letter was found in Peru. Its age is about four hundred years, but it was written, most likely by a Spanish author, in a language practically unknown to science, and then it was lost for several centuries. This language was used during the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries by some peoples of the Peruvian territory. It took about two years to decipher the meaning of what was written. The compiler of the letter translated Spanish numbers into an unknown language. Most likely, the basis for this unknown language was the language of the Quechua tribe.

The national cuisine of the Republic of Peru is distinguished by its diversity. It is perhaps worthy of being included in the Guinness Book of Records. The national cuisine of Peru retains the traditions of both Inca and Spanish cuisines. A tourist who comes to Peru should try sebiche. The base of this dish is either raw fish or crustaceans. The latter are served with a vegetable side dish or onions, and in lemon juice. The ahi de gallina dish is especially popular in Peru. It is made from chicken and served with a slightly spiced sauce. Kui dish is for lovers thrill... It is made from guinea pig, which is either fried or stewed. Saltado is popular in the Republic of Peru. The basis of this dish is vegetables. They are cooked in the oven with the addition of various spices. Peruvian cuisine can offer a rich assortment of all kinds of dishes for every taste. Kaarpuchu is a spicy potato soup. Costa Brava - seafood soup. During the cooking process, peas and onions are added to it. And the main ingredients for the next dish - huancaina papas - are processed cheese, potatoes and lemon juice. Among the drinks in Peru, yerba mate (or just mate) is widely popular. It is tea. Mint tea. This tea is not only delicious, but also helps to improve the functioning of the digestive tract. Very often mate is poured into special containers. They are vessels made from pre-dried pumpkin. They drink this drink through a straw. Fruits are often used as desserts in Peru, which are abundant in this country. It is a tuna cactus fruit, a nut-like delight fruit, juicy fruit chirimoya green. A fruit pudding called Masamorra morada has been known since the colonial period. Pudding often rounds off a meal and is one of the locals' favorite foods.

Republic Peru, a state in South America with access to the Pacific Ocean. Peru is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil and Bolivia, in the south by Chile, in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Area 1285 thousand sq. km, the population is more than 24.5 million people (1996). The capital city of Lima is home to approx. 20% of the country's population (5659 thousand people in 1997).

Geography of Peru
Surface structure. Within the country, from west to east, there are three large natural areas: 1) Costa - the coastal desert, 2) Sierra - the highlands of the Andes and 3) Selva - the eastern slopes of the Andes and the adjacent plains of the Amazon basin.
The coastal desert - Costa, stretching in a narrow indented strip along the entire Peruvian coast (2270 km), is the northern extension of the Chilean Atacama Desert. In the north, between the towns of Piura and Chiclayo, the desert occupies a wide lowland, the surface of which is mainly occupied by moving sand dunes. Further south, in the section from Chiclayo to Pisco, the steep slopes of the Andes approach the ocean itself.

Near Pisco, several merged fanning cones of rivers form a narrow lowland of irregular outlines, in places blocked off by mountain spurs. Even further south, near the very coast, a low mountain range rises, reaching about 900 m above sea level. To the east of it, a deeply dissected rocky surface extends, gradually rising towards the foot of the Andes.

Most of the Costa is so dry that of the 52 rivers flowing from the slopes of the Andes to the west, only 10 carry their waters to the ocean. The coast is the economically most important region of Peru. The region's 40 oases produce most of the most important crops, including exported ones. There are also a number of major cities on the coast - Lima, Callao, Chiclayo and Trujillo.

Highlands of the Andes - Sierra. The Peruvian Andes, which are 320 km wide, cover more than a third of the country's area; their peaks reach an altitude of 5500 m above sea level. Numerous mountain ranges stretch approximately from northwest to southeast.

Ten peaks rise above 6100 m, and the highest of them - Huascaran - reaches 6768 m. In the southern part there are volcanoes, the most famous of them is the Misti cone (5822 m) towering over the city of Arequipa. The eastern slopes of the Andes, on which heavy rains fall, are dissected by deeply cut river valleys and form a chaotic jumble of sharp ridges alternating with canyons up to 3000 m deep; several large tributaries of the Amazon River originate here. This area of ​​sharply and deeply dissected relief presents the greatest difficulties when crossing the Andes. Indians live here, using narrow strips of fertile land for crops on the bottoms of river valleys and in the lower parts of the slopes.

On the border of Peru and Bolivia, at an elevation of 3812 m above sea level, there is an alpine lake Titicaca; this is the largest of the alpine lakes with an area of ​​8446 sq. km, 59% of its water area is located in Peru.

Selva includes the lower eastern slopes of the Andes and the adjacent flat plains of the Amazon basin. This region occupies more than half of the total area of ​​the country.

The plain is covered with dense and tall-trunked tropical rain forests, and the only ways communications here are the large rivers - the Ucayali, the upper reaches of the Amazon, here called Marañon, and Napo. The main economic center of the region is Iquitos, located on the river. Amazon; this is the highest point, which can be reached by river steamers with a draft of more than 4 m.

Administratively, it is divided into 23 departments and 1 province (see Table 1).

... Political system

Peru- republic. The constitution of 1933 is partially in effect.After the military coup of 1968 (see the Historical outline), the parliament was dissolved Peru- Congress. All power is concentrated in the hands of the military leadership headed by President General J. Velasco Alvarado.

... Nature

According to the peculiarities of natural conditions, the following are distinguished: the coastal strip, or Costa, - in the west; mountainous, mainly steppe, region, or Sierra, - in the center, and the region of humid-forest eastern foothills and plains - Selva.

Tab. 1. - Administrative division

Relief. Costa - coastal coastal plains ranging from 80 to 180 km - accounts for 12.5% ​​of the area Peru To the south of 14 ° S latitude along the coast are the massifs of the Coastal Cordillera (up to 1800 m), the structures of which pass to the islands in places. The Sierra is a powerful system of the Peruvian Andes, occupying 30.2% of the country's territory. In the north, up to 11 ° south latitude, it is dissected by longitudinal valleys of the headwaters of the river. Amazons on Western Cordillera of the Andes reaching in the Cordillera Blanca with a height of 6768 m (Huascaran), Central Cordillera and Eastern Cordillera of the Andes ... The latter consist of several ridges up to 4000 m high, separated by wide and deep river valleys. South of 12 ° S latitude in the Andes are expressed: Western Cordillera and Eastern, structurally continuing the Central Cordillera. In the Western Cordillera (altitude over 6000 m) many volcanoes; active - Solimana (6117 m) and Misty (5821 m); extinct - Koropun (6425 m), Ampato (6310 m) and others. From the east to the Western Cordillera there are intermontane plateaus and plateaus with a height of 3000-4000 m. On the north and in the center, narrow deep (up to 2 km) canyons of rivers, and in the south they merge into a vast closed semi-desert plateau - Pune. Mainly flat, with a dense river network, Selva occupies more than 1/2 of the country's territory. On S.-V. it includes the western part of the Amazonian lowland, passing to the south into the elevated foothill plain, La Montagne.

E. N. Lukashova.

Geological structure and minerals. Eastern Peru is a part of the Amazonian syneclise of the South American platform, filled mainly by marine Paleozoic and continent, Meso-Cenozoic (more than 4 km) deposits. The Cenozoic foredeep separates the Amazonian syneclise from the folded structure of the Andes, formed as a result of the Late Proterozoic (Brazilian), Late Paleozoic, Late Mesozoic (Laramian) folding and subsequent Cenozoic orogeny. In the Andes are distinguished: the zone of the Eastern Cordillera, composed of terrigenous deposits of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic; pinching out to S.-Z. the Altiplano intermontane depression from Lake Titicaca, filled with Cenozoic molasses; zone of the Western Cordillera, mainly formed by thick terrigenous-carbonate deposits of the Mesozoic, broken by granitoid batholith and unconformably overlapped by terrestrial silicic Cenozoic volcanics (Andean volcanic belt). The coastal zone is composed of rocks of the Precambrian, Paleozoic, eugeosynclinal sedimentary-volcanic rocks of the Mesozoic. On S.-3. of the country, this zone is covered by a powerful Cenozoic terrigenous complex. There are oil deposits in it (near the border with Ecuador), as well as in the Cretaceous sediments of the Pre-Andean foredeep (Ucayali region); in the Western Cordillera there are large deposits of copper (Tokepala, Kuahon, Negra Huanusha), copper-polymetallic (Cerro de Pasco, Morococha) and lead-zinc (Chilete) ores.

E. E. Milanovsky.

Climate in the region of the Costa and the western slopes of the Andes, it is deserted, with almost no precipitation. Average monthly temperatures on the coast are from 15 ° С to 25 ° С. In the Sierra, the climate is alpine, summer-humid, subequatorial in the north (precipitation up to 1000 mm per year) and tropical in the south (precipitation 700-800 mm). Average monthly temperatures on the plateaus are from 12 ° C to 16 ° C in the north and from 5 ° C to 9 ° C in the south; daily fluctuations are very high (up to 20 ° C). On the eastern slopes of the Andes and in the Selva, the equatorial climate is constantly humid. Temperatures on the plain are high throughout the year (from 24 ° C to 27 ° C), precipitation up to 3000 mm in year.

Inland waters. Most of the rivers belong to the Amazon system; its main source is p. Marañon (originating on the eastern slopes of the Western Cordillera), together with its tributaries Huallaga and the second source - the Ucayali, are the main large rivers Peru Many rivers flow from the western slopes of the Andes into the Pacific Ocean, but they are all shallow and short, the largest are Piura, Santa, Tumbes and Chira. In Pune there is a basin of internal flow from Lake Titicaca. The rivers of the Andes have large reserves of hydropower. On the north of the Costa, in the eastern part of the Sechura desert, water from the river basin is transferred for irrigation. Marañon.

Soils and vegetation of the Costa region are scarce, on the western slopes of the Andes - rare shrubs and cacti. On the inner plateaus, in the north and east there is a high-mountainous tropical steppe (chalka) with mountain-steppe soils, in the south-east there are semi-deserts (pune). On the eastern slopes of the Andes and the Selva plains, there are moist evergreen forests with valuable tree species (rubber plants, cinchona, coca, etc.).

Animal world western part Peru poor; sometimes there are jaguar, azar fox, puma. Seabirds have created deposits on the islands guano. The coastal waters are rich in fish (including anchovies). In the Sierra there are representatives of the genus of lamas - guanacos and vicuñas; many birds. For Selva, animals leading an arboreal lifestyle are characteristic (monkeys are especially numerous), there are anteaters, sloths, tapirs, bakers. Great amount birds (parrots, hummingbirds, etc.), reptiles and insects. The existence of some animals is threatened. Because of the valuable fur, chinchillas that lived in the highlands of the Andes have practically been exterminated, and the number of vicuñas is sharply decreasing. In 1966, the Pampa de Galeras National Park was created to protect the animal world.

E. N. Lukashova.
... Population About half of the population Peru are Hispanic peruvians the rest are mostly Indians. The largest of the Indian peoples - Quechua and Aymara- populate the mountainous area. Most of them retain their languages, some are bilingual. In the Oriente zone live Indians of different tribes, speaking the languages ​​of the Pano, Arawak, Jibaro, Saparo, Tucano, and other families. There are several tens of thousands of immigrants (Japanese, Chinese, Spaniards, etc.). The official language is Spanish. The dominant religion is Catholicism. The Quechua and Aymara Indians christian religion intertwined with previous beliefs (the cult of the sun god, etc.). The official calendar is the Gregorian (see. Calendar ).

During 1963-72, the average annual population growth was 3.1%. The economically active population is 4269 thousand people. (1970), including in agriculture and forestry, fishing (in%; in parentheses for 1950) 45.1 (58.9), in the mining industry 2.1 (2.2), in the manufacturing industry 14.4 (13), in construction 4.3 (2.7), in trade, services, etc. 34.1 (23.2). Most of the population are peasants and agricultural workers. workers. The average population density is about 11 people. by 1 km 2(1972). 39% of the inhabitants are concentrated in coastal areas, 52% in mountainous areas, 9% in the eastern forested areas. The process of migration of the population from the Sierra to the cities of the Costa and Selva is noted. The urban population is about 59.6% (1972). Large cities: Lima (2.8 million people, with 3.6 million people in the suburbs, 1972), Arequipa, Callao, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura.

V. Historical outline

Primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society on the territory Peru(8th millennium BC-14th century AD). The appearance of a person on the territory Peru dates back to the 8th millennium BC. NS. By the 2nd millennium BC NS. includes the cultivation of corn, the domestication of the llama, and the construction of irrigation facilities. At the end of the 2nd - 1st millennium BC. NS. a large tribal association arose (the so-called culture Chavin ), apparently, created by the 1st millennium AD. NS. early class state. It was replaced by city-states. In the 1st millennium AD NS. another large association was formed, which created its own state on part of the territory of modern Bolivia and the south Peru - Tiahuanaco. After the collapse of the latter, a number of small tribal groups were formed.

Tahuantinsuyu State (15th-16th centuries). In the 15th century. confederation of Indian tribes led by Incas (inhabited on the territory Peru from the 11th century) conquered neighboring tribes and state formations and turned into a caste state - Tahuantinsuyu (1438) with a population of 8-15 million. The national language became Quechua. The economic basis of the state was the exploitation of the community members, and the rent (tax) collected from them was redistributed in a centralized manner between the Inca caste, the local tribal nobility (kurak) and the clergy. In Tahuantinsuyu, a communications network and irrigation facilities were built. The Incas were familiar with various crafts (processing precious metals, weaving, ceramics), they achieved success in mathematics, medicine, used the so-called. nodular letter ( kippu ). The nationwide cult of the sun and the supreme deity (Viracocha) was supplemented by the cult of ancestral ancestors. The conquered tribes rebelled against the rule of the Incas. Within the ruling caste itself, civil strife began, which put Tahuantinsuyu on the brink of disintegration.

Spanish conquest and establishment in the territory Peru colonial mixed society (16th - early 19th centuries). Those who landed at the beginning of the 16th century. within the territory of Peru The Spanish conquistadors, headed by F. Pizarro and D. Almagro, despite the heroic resistance of the Indians, in 1532-36 conquered Tahuantinsuyu and put most of the Inca and tribal nobility at their service. However, the Indians led Tupaca Amaru continued to fight against the conquerors. In 1543 the territory Peru was included in the Viceroyalty of Peru, which united most of South America. In 1540, the distribution of land between the Spanish colonialists began. The Spanish crown strengthened the communal system that existed under the Incas. A significant part of the communities were directly subordinate to the Spanish government officials - the Corregidors and paid numerous taxes. Part of the land went to catholic church and the missions of her orders. In 1570 the population of the territory Peru was 1.5 million people, including St. 8 thousand Spaniards. The Spanish colonialists viewed the conquered territories as an agrarian and raw material appendage of the metropolis. They brought here cattle and horses, introduced wheat and rice crops, and improved mining techniques. From the 16th century. textile and other manufactories began to operate, but the Spanish authorities, proceeding from the interests of the metropolis, held back their development. For established on the territory Peru The colonial system was characterized by a combination of elements of decaying feudalism with the beginnings of capitalist relations. In the 17-18 centuries. the basis of the economy was the mining industry, where forced labor of communes was used, which led to a sharp reduction in the number of the Indian population. Negro slaves were imported from Africa to work in the mines. 18th century was marked by the rise of peasant and urban uprisings against colonial oppression. In 1780 broke out peasant war under the leadership of H.G. Kondorkanka (took the name Tupac Amaru ), which lasted until 1783. As a result, the Spanish authorities canceled encomienda and carried out a series of social and administrative reforms that strengthened the position of local landowners and allowed to establish trade between the colonies. The estates of the Pacific coast began to specialize in the cultivation of industrial crops, the economy of the highlands - in cattle breeding. In 1795 the population of the Viceroyalty was about 1.5 million people, including 1.1 million Indians, about 250 thousand Spaniards, Creoles and mestizos, over 50 thousand Negro slaves and mulattoes.

War of Independence from Spain. Strengthening the bourgeois state Peru (1810-83). The War of Independence of the Spanish colonies in America, which began in 1810, took on the territory Peru the nature of the protracted civil war. In 1811-13, peasants and artisans formed the core of the anti-Spanish uprisings, in 1814-15 they launched an insurrectionary movement led by the Indian leader M. Garcia Pumacaua. The resistance of the Spaniards and Peruvian royalists (landlords and merchants) was broken by the Peruvian patriots with the help of the Argentine troops of the general San Martina and Colombian Corps S. Bolivar ... San Martin proclaimed independence in 1821 Peru and formed the first government of the country. In 1822, the constituent congress declared Peru republic and adopted the first constitution. After the defeat of the colonialists in the battles of Junin and Ayacucho (1824) Peru finally freed from the Spanish oppression. In 1825 Yu.-V. part Peru, called the Upper Peru, became an independent republic Bolivia. In 1835-39 Peru was part of the confederation Peru and Bolivia.

The most powerful force in the country remained the large landowners of the coast, who exported cotton and other industrial crops. The contradictions between them and the landowners of the highlands caused frequent civil wars and coups, which weakened the country. This was used by Spain, Great Britain, the United States to impose onerous loans and, with the help of military expeditions, rob Peru In 1864-66 Peru in alliance with Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile repelled the aggression of Spain (see. Pacific War 1864-66 ). In the middle of the 19th century. under President R. Castilla, a number of reforms were carried out: church tithes were abolished, slaves were freed with compensation to their owners, civil and criminal codes of laws were adopted, and many laws of colonial times were abolished. The construction of railways and textile factories was launched, and pig iron smelting was launched. In the 60s. the first trade union organizations of artisans and workers arose. A banking system was created, associated with foreign banks (English and German). By 1874, 11 banks operated in Lima. Local bankers, in alliance with the capitalizing landowners of the Pacific Coast region, fought against the conservative landowners of the highlands. The measures taken in 1873 by the liberal-bourgeois government of M. Pardo (1872-76) to purchase saltpeter by the state and prohibit the sale of land to private individuals in the area where saltpeter was mined contributed to the transfer of 2/3 of the saltpeter mines into the hands of the state, but provoked opposition from foreign capitalists. In the late 70s. the capitalists of Great Britain and Germany provoked Chile (where they enjoyed the right to free purchase of land) to a war against Bolivia and Peru(cm. Pacific War 1879-83 ). Weakened internal contradictions, as well as the machinations of foreign creditors Peru was defeated. It lost the province of Tarapaca, and the departments of Arica and Tacna were placed under Chilean administration for 10 years, followed by a plebiscite on the fate of these departments (in 1929, Tacna was returned Peru, Arica is assigned to Chile).

Enhanced penetration into Peru foreign monopolies; transformation Peru into a dependent state (1884-1917). Foreign monopolies, mainly British, North American and German, taking advantage of the defeat Peru, imposed enslaving agreements on him and took possession of for the most part main natural resources (oil, copper, guano deposits), cotton and sugar cane plantations, textile and other industrial enterprises. The introduction of foreign capital was accompanied by the growth of large latifundia due to the further expropriation of the community members. This caused continuous peasant uprisings (the largest in 1885, 1895-99, 1910-1924). The labor movement intensified (strikes of 1883, 1887, 1901, 1905-06, 1911). The petty-bourgeois anti-imperialist movement created its own organization (National Union) in 1891, the ideological inspirer of which was the revolutionary democrat M. Gonzalez Prada. In 1913, the liberal-bourgeois government of G. Billingurst tried to limit the arbitrariness of foreign monopolies and the local oligarchy, issued decrees on an 8-hour working day for port workers and the legalization of strikes. But in 1914 this government was overthrown in a military coup. In the 1st world war 1914-1918 Peru did not participate, but the war had a detrimental effect on its economy, which was oriented towards the external market due to its dependence on imperialist monopolies. Unemployment has increased, the cost of living has increased, working conditions have worsened, and the crisis has worsened.

Peru during the general crisis of capitalism (before 1968). The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia inspired workers, peasants and all Peruvian patriots to fight for their rights and strengthen national sovereignty. In 1918-19, there were strikes of miners, textile workers, port workers, sometimes escalating into armed clashes with government troops. The workers were supported by the students, who supported the reform of the education system, and by the patriotic military. Under these conditions, the financier A. Legia, associated with the American monopolies, carried out a military coup and established a regime of personal dictatorship (1919-30). The Legia government encouraged the expansion of American monopolies, especially oil monopolies, but it was forced to agree to some restrictions on the rights of foreign capitalists. According to the 1920 constitution, the subsoil was declared a state property, land ownership is regulated exclusively by Peruvian laws. Peasant communities received the right of a legal entity, a progressive income tax and social insurance for workers were introduced. Under the conditions of a new upsurge in the workers' and anti-imperialist movement that began in 1927 in 1928 under the leadership of Kh.K. Mariátegui was founded Peruvian Communist Party (PCP), until 1930 was called the Socialist Party. The communists led strikes in the copper mines and oil fields owned by the North American monopolies, created the General Confederation of Workers, uniting 90 thousand people, the Federation of Farm laborers and Indians. The world economic crisis of 1929-33 hit the mining industry especially hard. In 1930 there were major strikes of workers and employees, peasant uprisings, as well as unrest in the navy and in the army in connection with the treacherous policy of the ruling oligarchy. The right-wing leaders of the petty-bourgeois aprist party (its official name American People's Revolutionary Alliance , Spanish abbreviation - APRA) thwarted the efforts of the communists and other patriots, aimed at creating a popular anti-imperialist front. In 1932, Congress passed a series of exceptional laws against democratic elements. The authorities received the right to prohibit meetings, rallies, and close newspapers. In April 1933, a new constitution was introduced, establishing a presidential-parliamentary regime. In May, the government of OR Benavides came to power, expressing the interests of the financial-landlord oligarchy and oriented towards fascist Italy.

Since the beginning of World War II (1939-45), the anti-fascist movement intensified, under its influence the oligarchic government of M. Prado-i-Ugarteche (1939-45) was forced to democratize the political regime, broke off relations with the Axis countries in 1942, and in 1945 declared war on them. 1941-42 as a result of the war with Ecuador Peru secured most of the disputed territory in the Amazon. On the initiative of the communists, the Confederation of Workers was created in 1943-44 Peru, The Peruvian-Soviet Cultural Association and the National Democratic Front, which won the presidential elections in 1945. The government of J. Bustamante (1945-48) expanded civil liberties, legalized the Communist Party, and sought to improve the material and social situation of workers; it introduced control over prices and the export of profits abroad, strengthened the state sector of the economy, achieved liquidation in the territory Peru American military base. However, under pressure from foreign monopolies, the government began to surrender its positions of reaction, and in 1948 it was overthrown. The pro-imperialist dictatorship of General M. Audria (1948-56) abolished basic civil liberties, banned democratic parties and trade unions, launched an offensive on the living standards of the working people, transferred concessions to foreign monopolies (over 3 million. ha).

In the 50s. the country was engulfed in a strike movement. In 1950, an armed uprising took place in Arequipa and a people's government was created. After the suppression of the uprising in 1954-55, general political strikes took place, which forced the ruling classes to abolish the most repressive decrees and led to the fall of the Audria dictatorship in 1956. The government of M. Prado y Ugarteche came to power and restored civil liberties. Trade union associations were given the opportunity to operate legally. The patriotic military, communists and other democrats created the National Oil Defense Front (headed by General S. Pando Eguskisa), which demanded the return Peru oil wealth. The movement of salt was spreading

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• Amazon
  The river in South America, the largest in the world in terms of basin size, full flow and length of the river system. Formed by the confluence of the Marañon and Ucayali rivers. The length from the main source of Marañon is 6992.06 km, from the source of Apacheta, discovered at the end of the 20th century, about 7000 km, from the source of Ucayali over 7000 km. The basin area is 7180 thousand km² (according to other sources 6915 thousand km²). In 2011, according to the results of a worldwide competition, the Amazon was recognized as one of the seven natural wonders of the world
• Apurimac
  A river in South America, in Peru, the left side of the Ucayali River (Amazon basin). The length is 1250 km. The basin area is about 125 thousand km². It originates in the Pune Plateau in the Central Andes, northwest of Lake Titicaca, flows northwest in deep narrow valleys that dissect the Andes ridges. The food is mainly rain-fed. Average consumption is about 2.9 thousand m³ / s. Most abundant in summer (December-February). Very rapids, unnavigable. The city of Puerto Prado is located on the Apurimac River.
• Desaguadero
  The only river flowing from Lake Titicaca. Located in Peru and Bolivia. It flows out of the southern part of the lake, compensating for only a third of the water inflow into Lake Titicaca, and flows to Lake Poopo. In the upper reaches, it is fresh and navigable, but, passing through saline lands, it becomes shallow and salty.
• Zhavari
  A river in the central part of South America. It is located in the northwest of Brazil, the right tributary of the Amazon. Length - 1056 km. The source is in Peru. It originates in the Peruvian Andes (La Montaña), after which it serves as the border between Brazil and Peru along the entire length, except for the upper reaches. The river is navigable for 500 km and even further during the rainy season from January to May. Flooding occurs between December and April.
• Zhurua
  Right tributary of the Amazon. The length is 3280 km, the area of ​​the river basin is 224 thousand km². The source of the river is La Montaña (Peru), in the foothills of the Peruvian Andes, in the upper reaches it flows from south to north, in the middle and lower reaches, the Jurua channel is meandering, where the river crosses the Amazonian lowland in the states of Brazil - Acri (municipalities of the Cruzeiro do -Sul in the Vali do Jurua mesoregion: Marechal Thaumaturgo, Porto Valter, Rodríguez Alves and Cruzeiro do Sul) and Amazonas, flowing there in the direction of the east, crush its largest tributary (right) - the Tarauca River, then flows to the northwest in a riverbed with swampy shores.
• Concordia
  Drying river in Peru and Chile. The river originates in the Andean plateau and flows south-west several times across the border between Peru and Chile and flows into the Pacific Ocean 10 km north of the city of Arica near the village of Chacaluta. The river flows through the Tacna department (Peru) and the Arica y Parinacota region (Chile). There are practically no settlements on the banks of the river.
• Madre de Dios
  River in Peru and Bolivia, in the Amazon. The river is about 640 kilometers long. Starting in the Peruvian Andes, then on the territory of Bolivia it flows on the left into the Beni River in the Madeira basin, which, in turn, flows into the Amazon. Madre de Dios is an important waterway in the upper Amazon, on the river is the port city of Puerto Maldonado, from which navigation begins. Agriculture is widely developed in the river valley, the main crop for cultivation is mango. Industry is also developed in the river valley, gold mining and logging are carried out. Agriculture as well as industry create big problem for the ecology of the region.
• Mantaro
  A river in Peru, a tributary of the Apurimaca, which is below the confluence of the Mantaro, is called the Ene. It starts at an altitude of 4080 meters. The length of the river is 724 kilometers, the basin area is 15410 km². It flows through the provinces of Junin, Yauli, Jauha, Concepcion and Huancayo. In Quechua, the name of the river is "Hatunmayo", which means "great river".
• Marañon
  River in Peru, left source of the Amazon. The length is about 2000 km, the area of ​​its drainage basin is about 350,000 km². Named after "Captain Marañon, who was the first to discover navigation on this river."
• Napo
  River in South America (Ecuador, Peru), left tributary of the Amazon. Length according to various sources from 800 to 2000 km (width from 1 to 4 kilometers). It originates in the Ecuadorian Andes near the Cotopaxi volcano. The main tributaries: on the left - the Coca (river) and Aguarico, on the right - the Kureri. The river floods from June to August. In the lower reaches, small vessels pass along it. The river has 130 islands covered with young forests.
• Pasta
  A river in South America, in the northwestern part of the Amazon Basin. The largest tributary of the Marañon River. Length - 710 km. It originates in the Ecuadorian province of Cotopaxi, on the northwestern slopes of the Cotopaxi volcano. Upstream the river is known as Patate. Patate flows in a southerly direction, crossing the border with the province of Tungurahua, on the territory of which, just above the city of Banos, the river receives a tributary of the Chambo, after which it is already called Pastasa.
• Purus
  The river, the right tributary of the Amazon, is about 3200 kilometers long. The source of the Purus is in Peru on the eastern slope of the Andes, but the river mainly flows through Brazil, in the Amazonian lowland in the zone of humid equatorial forests. After the rainy season in March-April, the river is flooded.
• Putumayo
  River in South America. It is mainly located in the northwestern part of Brazil, in the upper reaches it flows through the territory of Colombia, Peru and Ecuador. The length of the river is about 1800 km. It flows from northwest to southeast. It has a number of large tributaries. It flows into the Amazon. The high water period lasts from October to April - May.
• Rimac
  River in the west of Peru. It originates high in the Andes Mountains in the province of Lima and flows into the Pacific Ocean within the city of Lima near Jorge Chavez Airport. The river is about 160 kilometers long. The river got its name from Quechua rimaq meaning "to speak", many locals call Rimac in Spanish El Río Hablador, literally meaning "speaking river". This name was most likely given during the time of the Incas because of the great noise emitted by the waters of the river during high water.
• Solimoes
  The section of the Amazon River in its upper reaches, from the confluence of the Ucayali and Marañon rivers to its confluence with the Rio Negro. It flows through the territory of Peru and Brazil. The length of this section of the river is about 1,600 km, the area of ​​the catchment area is 2,200,000 km², and the flow rate is 100,000 m³ / s.
• Hualyaga
  River in South America. It originates in the Andes Mountains in central Peru. The river is 1134 kilometers long. It flows into the Marañon River. It has a number of tributaries. The river floods from June to August.
• Ucayali
  River in Peru, right tributary of the Amazon; sometimes Ucayali is mistaken for the source of the Amazon. The length is 1771 km, the basin area is 375 thousand km². Formed by the confluence of the Tambo (in the upper reaches - Apurimak) and Urubamba, originating in the Central Andes, after their confluence flows through the Amazonian lowland. Average flow rate is 12,600 m³ / s. Navigable to the city of Kumaria. The main port is Pucallpa.
• Urubamba
  A river flowing in the central part of Peru. Length, from the source in the Central Andes, to the mouth - 725 km. Almost along its entire length, Urubamba is a mountain river with rapids and waterfalls. Floods in December-February. It flows in deep canyons that dissect the Vilcabamba and Vilcanota ridges. Above the river gorge are the ruins of the city of Machu Picchu. The source is called Vilkanota, merging at the mouth with the Apurimak (Tambo) River, forms the Ucayali River (Amazon basin).
• Chira
  River in Peru. The length is about 300 km. The catchment area is 19,095 km², of which 7162 km² in Ecuador and 11,933 km² in Peru. It originates in the Andes. It flows into the Pacific Ocean. Poechos Reservoir is located 27 km northeast of the town of Sullana, where swimming, fishing, water skiing and sailing are possible.